Flora of the Indian epics period

[[File:Sita at ashokavana.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Sita at Ashokavana under Ashoka tree (''[[Saraca asoca]]'') in epic [[Ramayana]]. [[Hanuman]] is seen on the tree.]]
The '''flora of The INDIAN epics period''' can be a tool to study the [[ancient history|antiquity]] of [[Indian epics]] as these do not record time scales of the incidences mentioned in these. The [[flora]] of an area or of time period, refers to all plant life occurring in an area or time period, especially the naturally occurring or [[indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] plant life.
[[File:Razmnama Dronacharya.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Bhishma on his death-bed of arrows with the [[Pandavas]] and [[Krishna]] - Folio from the ''[[Razmnama]]''(1761 - 1763), Persian translation of the Mahabharata, commissioned by Mughal emperor [[Akbar]]. The Pandavas are dressed in Persian armour and robes.<ref>[http://www.plantcultures.org/pccms/action/showItem?id=340 Plant Cultures - picture details]</ref>]] The Indian epics discuss AbOUT the [[flora and fauna]], the [[geography]] and [[forestry]] of the region.

The ancient [[Sanskrit epics]], the [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]], also termed Itihāsa (History) or Mahākāvya ("Great Compositions"), refer to forest and plant life at various places. The language of these texts is the "[[Epic Sanskrit]]". The importance of forests in Indian epics can be understood from the fact that each epic devotes one book to the forests. In [[Mahabharata]] it is the [[Aranyaka Parva]] (also [[Vana Parva]], [[Aranya Parva]]) (The Book of the Forest) which mentions about the period of twelve years spent by Pandavas in exile in the forest (aranya). The divisions of [[Ramayana]] into Kandas (Books) also includes one Kanda known as [[Aranya Kanda]] – Book of the Forest. In Ramayana [[Kishkindha Kanda]] – Book of [[Kishkindha]] also discusses the [[geography]] and [[forestry]] of the region.
== Man and environment ==
The evolution of life on earth in geological ages indicates that man evolved only a million years ago when he lived in dense forests along with other denizens. Palaeo-botanists have examined the fossils of plants found in rocks of various ages and deduced what kind of vegetation grew in those particular geological periods. Thus Dr. [[Birbal Sahni]] concluded from the [[fossils]] found in inter-trappean rocks that at that time estuarine conditions prevailed in [[India]], and the [[flora]] belonged to the genera of [[plants]] found in [[London clay]]. These plants must have [[Seed dispersal|migrated]] to [[India]] by way of the [[Tethys Sea]] which stretched along the northern edge of the [[Gondwana]] land before the uplift of the [[Himalayas]]. It has also been proved that [[Kashmir]] and [[Rajasthan]] once had a [[tropical forest]], which later receded as a result of [[glaciation]] and the upthrust of the Himalayas. Prior to this upheaval, the [[Ganga]] drained northwards into the [[Sindhu]]. By this time man had already been evolved.<ref>K P Sagreiya: Forests and Forestry, National Book Trust, India, 2005, ISBN 81-237-1126-3, p.4</ref>

The ancient and [[prehistoric]] man has lived in [[symbiosis]] with the [[Natural environment|environment]]. In the neolithic age, {{dn|primitive man}} lived in [[dense forests]], on [[trees]] or in [[natural caves]], and subsisted on [[leaves]], [[fruits]], and [[root]]s of [[plants]]. He used fire for keeping off the dangerous animals of the [[forest]].<ref> K P Sagreiya: Forests and Forestry, National Book Trust, India, 2005, ISBN 81-237-1126-3, pp.4-5</ref>

'''In [[Geological]] Ages''': [[palaeo-botanical]] evidence testifies to the fact that there were dense [[forests]] in [[India]] in the [[Permian period]], 250 million years ago. A fossilized trunk of a tree found in the [[Raniganj]] coal-field is nearly 30 m long and 75 cm in diameter at the butt-end and 35 cm at the top-end. It has been named by Dr. [[Birbal Sahni]] as [[Dadoxylon]], an extinct genus of plants. [[Fossil wood]] is found in several places in [[Madhya Pradesh]] and in the [[Siwalik hills]] along the [[Himalayas]].<ref> K P Sagreiya: Forests and Forestry, National Book Trust, India, 2005, ISBN 81-237-1126-3, p.7</ref>

Man was evolved in the beginning of [[Pleistocene Age]], only about a million years ago. At this time India had thick [[forests]] except in [[Rajasthan]] and parts of [[Punjab (region)|Punjab]] which lay buried under a [[swamp]], the remnant of the receding [[Tethys Sea]].

'''In Historical Times''': Man progressed rapidly in historical times, and began to live in organized societies, constructed shelters using wood bark, etc. and soon took to farming and domestication of animals. [[Archaeological]] evidence shows that the [[Rajasthan]] swamps existed till as late as [[4000 BC]], when [[Mohenjodaro]] culture flourished in the outskirts of [[Lothal]] in [[Gujarat]]. In these marshes grew stout reeds which were used by [[Chalcolithic]] people to cover dead bodies. The adjoining forest contained [[rhinoceroses]] and [[crocodiles]] of which we find replicas on the seals. At this time trees must have been felled by [[axe]]s of flint and [[bronze]], as [[iron]] had not yet been used. After the disappearance of this civilization-the reasons for which are still not known-the [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Aryans]] started coming into [[India]], from [[2000 B.C.]] They introduced the use of [[iron]] for making axes, javelins, ploughs, etc.<ref> K P Sagreiya: Forests and Forestry, National Book Trust, India, 2005, ISBN 81-237-1126-3, p.8</ref>

There is evidence that at this period a {{dn|Dravidian civilization}} of a high order flourished in the country, with its roots in the far south, which apparently lived in consonance with the thick extensive [[forest]] and its [[wildlife]]. The [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Aryans]] were primarily [[pastoral]] people. To construct shelters for themselves and for their domesticated animals they cleared the [[forests]] wherever they went. But even so, being worshippers of [[Nature]], they preferred for their abodes, and even for their educational centres, sylvan surroundings and inspiring landscape. It is in such setting that the [[Vedas]], the [[Upanishads]] and the [[Aranyakas]] were composed which sing the glory of the Creator and lay down recepts of conduct for man to live righteously.<ref> K P Sagreiya: Forests and Forestry, National Book Trust, India, 2005, ISBN 81-237-1126-3, p.8</ref>
[[Image:Burning of Khandava.jpg|right|thumb|300px| The forest of Khandava near [[Yamuna]], being burnt by [[Arjuna]] and [[Krishna]] ]]

Human population at this period was very small, and forests were still plentiful. When the great epic [[Ramayana]] was written there were still dense forests in [[Naimisharanya]], [[Chitrakoot]], [[Dandakaranya]], and [[Panchavati]] which abounded in [[wildlife]]. But by the time the [[Mahabharata]] was compiled, onslaughts had been made on [[forests]] and we read of the burning of the [[Khandava Vana]]. To arrest such vandalism, which was adversely affecting the life of the people, some wise ancestor of ours must have declared [...] of trees a sin and planting and protecting them an act of piety. Several useful species of [[plants]] were thus saved from extinction, such as the [[Banyan]], the [[Sacred fig|Pipal]], the [[Bael|Bel]], etc. Even then some disappeared in course of time from particular areas, such as the [[Neolamarckia cadamba|Kadam]], the [[Ashok]], and the [[Bamboo]]s from [[Vrindavan]].
<ref>K P Sagreiya: Forests and Forestry, National Book Trust, India, 2005, ISBN 81-237-1126-3, pp.8-9</ref>

The chronicles of [[China|Chinese]] pilgrims mention dense Indian forests in birth-place of [[Lord Krishna]]. Records relating to the invasion of [[Alexander the great]] in [[326 BC]] mention the existence of almost impenetrable forests along the [[Indus]].
Later, in [[Kautilya]]'s times protection of forests, planting Of new species of trees, and preservation of wildlife were considered desirable, and a special officer was appointed for the purpose. By the time of [[Emperor Ashoka]], heavy inroads had already been made into the [[forests]] and their absence begun to be feft. Therefore, as his rock edicts record, this far-sighted monarch ordered that useful trees be planted along the roads and on camping grounds. He also encouraged the cultivation of exotic [[medicinal plants]].<ref>K P Sagreiya: Forests and Forestry, National Book Trust, India, 2005, ISBN 81-237-1126-3, p.9</ref>

[[Shershah Suri]] planted trees along the [[Delhi]]-[[Patna]] Highway. The [[Mughal (tribe)|Mughal]]s were not forest-minded as such, but they created exquisite gardens. [[Emperor Jahangir]] introducd the famous [[Platanus orientalis|Chinar]] tree in the [[valley of Kashmir]] which has now become synonymous with [[Kashmir]]. The Mughals also maintained large ''Shikargahs'' for hunting. The ''[[Ain-e-Akbari]]'' records that elephants roamed in the forests as far west as [[Mhow]] near [[Indore]]. But a century later [[Aurangzeb]] found only [[scrub forests]] near [[Burhanpur]]. The [[Maratha]]s and the [[Gonds]] planted mangoes and other useful trees alang their marching routes and halting places, some of which are still surviving.<ref>K P Sagreiya: Forests and Forestry, National Book Trust, India, 2005, ISBN 81-237-1126-3, p.9</ref>

The remains of extinct creatures discovered in the upper layers of the [[Sivaliks]] range and in other parts of [[India]] gives us a glimpse of the wonderful wealth of animal life that flourished here in the tertiary period. [[Mastodon]]s and great herds of [[elephant]]s of many species trumpeted and tramped through the [[swamps]] and reedy [[forest]]s of this region. With them lived [[hippopotamuses]], [[rhinoceroses]] of various species, and a colossal four-horned ruminants, the Sivatherium. The one-horned rhinoceros, as born out by the seals of the '''[[Harappan culture]]''', was once found as far west as [[Rajasthan]].<ref>K P Sagreiya: Forests and Forestry, National Book Trust, India, 2005, ISBN 81-237-1126-3, pp. 98-99</ref>

The rich heritage of [[wildlife]] came down to us through tne ages mainly because of the deep-rooted [[Indian tradition]] of compassion for all life in general. Moreover, animals have been closely associated with our [[folklore]] and legends. [[Kautilya]]'s [[Arthashastra]], written in the [[3rd century BC]] refers to definite administrative arrangements for preservation of [[wildlife]].Special areas, called [[Abhayaranya]]s, were set aside for their protection. [[Emperor Ashoka]] introduced game laws, ordained the preservation of forests, and prohibited [...] of animals.<ref>K P Sagreiya: Forests and Forestry, National Book Trust, India, 2005, ISBN 81-237-1126-3, p. 103</ref>

'''Carbon dating'''

[[Carbon dating]] method can be used to determine the age of living trees in the past. This technique will give age of a tree when it became dead wood.It has become thus possible from specimens of wood, charcoal, etc., found in excavations by [[archaeologist]]s to fix period when a particular [[prehistoric]] culture flourished. The [[Indian cultures]] have been dated as under:<ref>K P Sagreiya: Forests and Forestry, National Book Trust, India, 2005, ISBN 81-237-1126-3, pp. 250</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"; border="5"
! Place of excavation !! Carbon-dating finding
|-
| [[Atnur]] ([[South India]]) || [[2300 BC]] [[Neolithic culture]]
|-
| [[Eran]] & [[Navadatoli]] ([[Madhya Pradesh]]) || [[2300 BC]]-[[1400 BC]] [[Central Indian culture]]
|-
| [[Kalibangan]] ([[Rajasthan]]) and [[Lothal]] ([[Gujarat]])|| [[2100 BC]] [[Harappan culture]]
|-
| [[Ahar]] ([[Rajasthan]]) || [[1800 BC]]-[[1300 BC]] [[Banas culture]]
|-
| [[Newasa]] and [[Chandoli]] ([[Maharashtra]])|| [[1300 BC]]-[[1100 BC]] [[Chalkolithic culture]]
|}

== Vedic culture ==

India was one of the foremost developed countries in ancient times. Learned persons of [[vedic culture]] were quite aware regarding unimaginable obligation of plants for the very sustenance of animal life. Though not scientifically proved at that time, they knew that the air we breath remains pleasant by surrounding plants. There are a number of verses in ancient literature depicting this generosity of vegetable kingdom. They have also realised that there is no conduct of life where the [[plant kingdom]] does not make its contribution like [[food]], [[fuel]], {{dn|shelter}}, [[fiber]], [[fodder]] and [[medicine]]. No wonder that many such plants species have been revered as God.<ref>S G Joshi, Medicinal Plants, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 2004, ISBN 81-204-1414-4, p.xi</ref>

== Medicinal plants ==
The ancient scholars in [[Sanskrit language]] studied the plants mainly for medicinal purposes. From time immemorial many medicinal plants are well-known in this country. Use of herbal medicine can be traced to the remote past. One of the oldest treaties in the world is [[Rigveda]] ([[4500 BC]]-[[1000 BC]]) where healing properties of some herbs are mentioned in the form of sonnets, which were often recited in religious rituals. Later on a special faculty was developed known as [[Ayurveda]], mostly dealing with human philosophy of health including utilization of [[medicinal plants]] for restoring normal physical fitness.<ref>S G Joshi, Medicinal Plants, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 2004, ISBN 81-204-1414-4, p.xi</ref>
[[File:Arrowleaf.jpg|thumb|[[Sida acuta]] Burm]]
[[File:Sida acuta (Jangli-methi) in Hyderabad, AP W2 IMG 0084.jpg|thumb|[[Sida rhombifolia]] Linn]]
Interestingly enough there used to be regular rapport between {{dn|sages}} of various communities interested in miraculous effects of [[herbal medicine]]. There are records in ancient scripts regarding periodic conferences, seminars and also workshops in selected areas where exchange of knowledge was often manifested. Even it was mentioned that women scholars like [[Maitrai]], [[Gargi]] contributed some knowledge about [[medicinal plants]] and their maintenance. During the glorious days of [[Buddha]] philosophy ([[600 BC]]- [[400 AD]]) there was friendly mingling of therapeutic values of plants, through religious norms were different. Scholars practicing medicine were quite familiar with wild medicinal plants growing in [[jungles]].<ref>S G Joshi, Medicinal Plants, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 2004, ISBN 81-204-1414-4, p.xi</ref>

The further advancement of this process was materialization of [[Susruta Samhita]] and [[Charaka Samhita]] ([[1000 B.C.]]) which incorporates comprehensive chapters on the therapeutic use of various [[plant species]]. These treaties deal with about 700 [[drugs]], some of these are not [[indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] to [[Indian subcontinent]]. The invaluable knowledge of medicine was composed in lyrical [[sutra]]s (Sonnets) which often reveal valuable information in few words.<ref>S G Joshi, Medicinal Plants, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 2004, ISBN 81-204-1414-4, p.xi</ref>

Later on number of new plant species were added to the then known [[pharmacopoeia]] of [[indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] [[medicinal plants]]. Attempts were also made to identify the required medicinal plant species by observing their [[exomorphic]] characters. For example plant species like {{dn|Bala}} ([[Sida acuta]] Burm.); [[Atibala]] ([[Sida rhombifolia]] Linn.); [[Nagabala]] ([[Sida spinosa]] Linn.) and [[Bhubala]] ([[Sida veronicaefolia]] Lam.) were named and grouped together under one class. In modern classification all these belong to [[Hibiscus]] ([[Malvaceae]]) family. Indeed Indian scholars do have realised the importance of correct identity of plants and that the knowledge of diagnostic external [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] characters are essential requirements for that purpose. But they could not imagine the use of [[Binomial system of nomenclature]] of the plants and thereby fixing absolute identity of the concerned plant material. Instead of that they have started giving various names to the same plant species by considering broad features like shape, color of flowers, smell, taste, along with local names based on plant profile and [[mythological]]
folklores in various regional languages. For example Krisna Tulsi (''[[Ocimum sanctum]]'' L.) have 52 different names in various Indian dialects. Such trend of thinking became prelude to more confusion while undertaking any research project on indigenous Indian plants.<ref>S G Joshi, Medicinal Plants, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 2004, ISBN 81-204-1414-4, p.xi</ref>

== Dark-age in the world history ==
From 12th century A.D. [[Arabs]] and [[Turkish people|Turkish]] tribal empires imbibed with fervour of [[Islam]], conquered 3/4 of [[Spain]] and started shrinking Eastern frontiers of [[Europe]]. More or less during the same period warring empires of {{dn|Mughal}}s and {{dn|Tartar}}s invaded [[Indian subcontinent]] through the narrow corridor of [[Afganistan]]. Non-believers of Islam became slaves and faced extreme cruel treatment. The scholarly good work began by the [[Greeks]] in [[Europe]] and [[Hindu culture]] in [[India]] was mostly lost and forgotten during the prolonged period. This era is often recorded as dark-age in the world history. The hostile eclipse started its withdrawal during the [[16th century]] in [[Europe]] and in India after establishment of [[British empire]] during [[19th century]].<ref>S G Joshi, Medicinal Plants, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 2004, ISBN 81-204-1414-4, p.xii</ref>

== Puranic literature ==
[[Puranic]] [[cosmography]] divides our earth into seven concentric [[dvipa|island]]s. They are separated by the seven encircling [[samudra|sea]]s. Seven intermediate oceans consist of salt-water, sugarcane juice, wine, [[ghee]], [[curd]], milk and water respectively.<ref>Agni Purana 108.1-2</ref>,<ref>Matsya Purana 121-122</ref> All these [[dvipa]]s are named after [[tree]]s/[[plant]]s in [[Sanskrit]]. The seven [[dvipa]]s are:
[[File:Syzygium cumini Bra30.png|thumb|Jambu leaves ([[Syzygium cumini]])]]
'''1.[[Jambudvipa|Jambu]] (जम्बुद्वीप)''' - Continent Jambudvipa named after Jambū (जंबू) trees, ''[[Syzygium cumini]]'' (Indian Blackberry), is also known as ''Sudarshanadvipa'', forms the innermost concentric island in the above scheme. The fruits of the Jambu tree are said to be as large as elephants and when they become rotten and fall upon the crest of the mountains, a river of juice is formed from their expressed juice. The river so formed is called Jambunadi (Jambu river) and flows through Jambudvipa, whose inhabitants drink its waters. Insular continent Jambudvipa is said to comprise nine ''varsas'' (zones) and eight significant ''mountains''. The insular continent Jambudvipa forms the innermost [[concentric]] [[island]] in the scheme of continents. Jambudvipa includes nine countries (varṣa) and nine mountains. The land of ''Illa-vrta'' lies at the center of Jambudivipa at whose center is located [[Mount Meru]].

[[File:Pipal.jpg|thumb|left|The Plaksha (''[[Ficus religiosa]]'') leafe]]
'''2.[[Plaksa|Plaksha]] (प्लक्षद्वीप)''' - [[Plaksa]] is a possible Sanskrit term for the sacred fig of which botanical name is ''[[Ficus religiosa]]''. According to Macdonell and Keith (1912), it rather denotes the wavy-leaved Fig tree (Ficus infectoria). The continent Plaksha is said to be along the western border of [[Jambudvipa]]. [[Vishnu Purana]] says that the Plaksha continent encircles Jambudvipa. In Hindu texts, the Plaksa tree is associated with the source of the [[Sarasvati River]]. The [[Skanda Purana]] states that the Sarasvati originates from the water pot of [[Brahma]] and flows from Plaksa on the Himalayas. According to Vamana Purana 32.1-4, the Sarasvati was rising from the Plaksa tree (Pipal tree).<ref>D.S. Chauhan in Radhakrishna, B.P. and Merh, S.S. (editors): Vedic Sarasvati, 1999, p.35-44</ref> Plaksa Pra-sravana denotes the place where the Sarasvati appears.<ref>Pancavimsa Brahmana, Jaiminiya Upanisad Brahmana, Katyayana Srauta Sutra, Latyayana Srauta; Macdonell and Keith 1912</ref> In the Rigveda Sutras, Plaksa Pra-sravana refers to the source of the Sarasvati.<ref>Asvalayana Srauta Sutra, Sankhayana Srauta Sutra; Macdonell and Keith 1912, II:55</ref>

[[File:Semal (Bombax ceiba) leaves (back side) in Kolkata W IMG 4135.jpg|thumb|Śalmalī (शाल्मली) (''[[Bombax ceiba]]'') tree leaves]]

'''3.[[Salmali]]dvipa (शाल्मलीद्वीप)''' - The continent derives its name from '''Śalmalī (शाल्मली)''' tree in [[sanskrit]] with Botanical name ''[[Bombax ceiba]]'', commonly known as cotton tree or tree cotton. This tropical tree has a straight tall trunk and its leaves are deciduous in winter. Red flowers with 5 petals appear in the spring before the new foliage. Salmalidvipa is mentioned in Puranas as ''parvata'' touching the ''Ikshurasoda samudra''.

'''4.[[Desmostachya bipinnata|Kushadvipa]] (कुशद्वीप)''' - The continent derives its name from '''Kusha (कुश)''' grass, which has Botanical name ''[[Desmostachya bipinnata]]''. The author of [[Vayu Purana]] uses the name [[Kumuda]]-dvipa for Kusha-dvipa (Vayu I.48.34-36). '[[Kumuda]]' is also a Puranic name of a mountain forming the northern buttress of the [[Mount Meru]] (i.e. [[Pamirs]]). In anterior {{dn|Epic Age}}, Kumuda was the name given to high table-land of the [[Tartary]] located to north of the [[Himalaya]] range from which the [[Aryan]] race may have originally pushed their way southwards into Indian peninsula and preserved the name in their traditions as a relic of old mountain worship <ref>O. Thompson, A History of Ancient Geography, London 1965</ref>. Thus, the Kumuda-dvipa lay close north to the Pamirs. Lying in the Transoxiana (in Saka-dvipa), this Komuda or Kumuda-dvipa of the Puranic texts is often identified as the ancient {{dn|Kamboja}} land which corresponds to the Parama Kamboja referred to in the [[Sabha Parava]] of [[Mahabharata]].
[[File:Egretta thula1.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The ''Krauncha'' - Snowy Egret, Egretta thula]]

'''5.[[Kraunchadvipa]] (क्रौंचद्वीप)''' - The continent derives its name from [[Sanskrit]] word '''Krauncha (क्रौंच)''' used for [[Curlew]]-[[heron]]. Krauncha-Vyuha (क्रौंच व्‍युह) has been mentioned in [[Mahabharata war]] as a military formation on a pattern supposed to resemble a [[heron]]. In the Krauncha island, there is a mountain called Maha-krauncha that is a mine of all kinds of gems. Mahabharata mentions [[Kinnara]]s and [[Vidyadhara]]s living in Krauncha mountain (in Himachal Pradesh ) in the [[Himalaya]]s (9,16).

[[File:Flower, fruit & leaves (Tectona Grandis) I IMG 8818.jpg|thumb|Flower, fruit & leaves of ''[[Tectona grandis]]'' (Shāka) tree]]

'''6.[[Shakadvipa]] (शाकद्वीप)''' - The continent derives its name from '''Shāka (शाक)''' tree, Botanical name ''[[Tectona grandis]]'', a tall deciduous tree with rounded crown. Surrounded by the sea of whey is Shakdvipa with an extent of thirty-two lakh [[Yojan]]s. It has a huge tree of [[Shaka]], hence its name. With a sweet fragrance of this tree, the whole island emits a pleasant scent. The ruler of this island, Medhatithi was also a son of Priyvrata. He too had seven sons- Purojav, Manojav, Pawamana, Dhumranik, Chitraref, Bahurup and Vishwdhar. They were made the rulers of the seven divisions of the island. People of the island use Pranayama to weaken their [[Rajas|Rajoguna]] and {{dn|Tamas|Tamoguna}}, and worship [[Hari]] (Vishnu) in [[Vayu]] (form) through meditation.<ref> Bhagavad Gita (5.20.3-42)</ref> [[Visnu Purana]]: "Shakdvipa located inside Chira sea and Shakdwipis are friends"<ref>[http://vishnu-purana.puranas.org/ The Puranas: Vishnu Purana]</ref> [[Mahabharata]] 6.604 = Bhagavad Gita 5.20.3-42: "In [[Shakdvipa]], caste system is same as [[Jambudvipa]]. There was four caste in Shakdvipa 1. [[Maga]] 2. [[Mushu]]s 3. {{dn|Manu}}s 4 [[Mandaka]]" <ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/maha/index.htm Sacred-Texts: Hinduism]</ref>
[[File:Nelumno nucifera open flower - botanic garden adelaide2.jpg|thumb|Pushkara (''[[Nelumbo nucifera]]'') flower]]

'''7.[[Pushkar]]advipa (पुष्करद्वीप)''' - The continent derives its name from plant named '''Pushkara (पुष्कर)''', Botanical name ''[[Nelumbo nucifera]]'', a handsome aquatic herb, Native to Greater India and commonly cultivated in water gardens, the lotus is the national flower of [[India]] and [[Vietnam]]. It is Native of [[China]], [[Japan]] also. Grown throughout warmer parts of India. Pushkaradvipa may probably refer to [[Pushkar]], a town in the state of Rajasthan in India. [[Hindu]]s believe that the gods released a swan with a [[lotus (genus)|lotus]] in its beak and let it fall on earth where [[Brahma]] would perform a grand yagna. The place where the lotus fell was called [[Pushkar]].

==Origin of Saka ==

According to Hukum Singh Pawar (Pauria) Some writers think that [[Saka]] (Scythian) is a Sanskrit word which means Sagwan or [[Teak]] (''Tectona grandis''), generally grown in monsoon region, the shape of which and that of its river deltas was like that of '''teak leaf'''.<ref>Satya Sharva, Sakas in Ind., New Delhi, 1981, pp. 3f; cf. also Mat. Pur. 123.36. Viswa Prakasa Kosha, p.4, shloka no. 25; p. 5, shloka no. 35, Nanarthasabad Kosha, p.3, st. 35 and 36; p. 87, shloka no. 36</ref>, and the people popularly known as [[Saka]]s used to be the inhabitants of this land. S. M. Ali <ref>Geog. of the Puranas, pp. 39</ref> identifies [[Shakadvipa]] with land mass in the south-east of {{dn|Meru}} <ref>({{dn|MBT}}, Ch. 14.21-25)</ref> which falls climatically in the monsoon region and teak is its distinctive tree in its natural and artificial vegetation. The [[Sapta Sindhu]], original home of [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Aryans]], in the south of {{dn|Meru}}, we find that the country fulfills all the requisites of [[Shakadvipa]], viz, teak leaf shape of the country or the area abundant in teak vegetation, as well as that of the deltas of [[Sarasvati]] and [[Indus]] river. The [[Mahabharata]]'s reading, alluded to above, that there was {{dn|Sakala}}-dvipa, the name of which is attributed to the Sakas, in the Sapta Sindhu, evidently carries much weight. There is every possibility that the people of Sapta Sindhu, as a whole, might have besides their eponymous and ethnoyms, been known as [[Saka]]s also.<ref>Hukum Singh Pawar (Pauria):The Jats, Their Origin, Antiquity and Migrations, pp.207-208</ref>

== Flora of Ramayana epic ==
The Indian epic [[Ramayana]] discusses the [[Flora and fauna]] of the places visited by [[Rama]]. Ramayana in [[Bala Kanda]] Sarga 24 mentions the crossing over of the River Ganga, sage Vishvamitra sails [[Rama]] and [[Laxmana]] through its confluence with River Sarayu, which flows at their capital Ayodhya. The sage leads them to a deadly forest on the other bank of River Ganga and narrates about the provinces Malada and Karusha. Here shlokas 12-18 mention about the forest trees and plants of the region.

[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 11 mentions the Stories of Sages Mandakarani and [[Agastya]]. It depicts the propitious nature of [[Agastya]]’s hermitage. Here shlokas 46, 49, 74-76 mention many trees and plants. [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15 mentions about [[Panchavati]] situated on Godavari River in Nasik district in Maharashtra. Here shlokas 12-18 mention the biodiversity of the area around [[Pampa Lake]]. [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73 writes how Kabandha extols [[Pampa Lake]] and details [[Rama]] about the course to be adopted to proceed to Mt. [[Rishyamuka]] to befriend [[Sugreeva]]. He details about [[Matanga]] hermitage where shlokas 2-5 describe a large number of trees.

Ramayan-[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 gives a description of [[Pampa Lake]] and writes about many forest trees in shlokas 73-83. In [[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 40, [[Sugreeva]] orders vanara-s to search east under the leadership of Vinata, a mighty vanara.Here Sugreeva commissioning Vinata explains the topography and geography of Eastern side of the [[Jambudvipa]], where trees have been mentioned in shlokas 39, 53 and 56. In [[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 42, [[Sugreeva]] sends troops to '''west side''' to search for Sita. Describing the various provinces like Surashtra, Balhika and Chandrachitra (Mathura), Western Ocean, River Sindhu and magnificent mountains that are situated at the northwest of India, cities like Murachi, Jatapura, Avanti and Angalepa and also the ocean down south to it, namely the present Arabian Sea and almost up to Persian provinces, he orders vanara troops to return within one month's time. Here shlokas 7, 8, 11, 12, 13,46 mention forest trees. In [[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 43, [[Sugreeva]] sends troops '''to north''' in search of Sita. He gives an account of the snowy regions and provinces of northern side and asks them to search in the places of [[Yavana]], {{dn|Kuru}}, and [[Darada]]s etc., civilisations. Sugreeva specially informs them about a divine province called [[Uttara Kuru Kingdom|Uttara Kuru]] and a heavenly mountain called Mt. Soma on which Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva make sojourn for its sacredness. Here shlokas 13, 17 and 37 describe the forest trees.

The identification of these species may prove to be great tool in identifying those places and writing of history. We produce here the names of plants and trees in [[Sanskrit language]], their botanical names, local Hindi or English names and Sargas (Chapters) in which forests and tree species have been mentioned.
=== List of Plants A-L in Ramayana ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"; border="5"
! Sanskrit name of plant (Devanagari) !! Botanical name !! Indian names !! Indian epic !!Sarga !! Shloka !!Location in epics !! Habit !! Present Habitat
|-
|Agnimukha (अग्निमुख)||''[[Semecarpus anacardium]]'' ||[[Hindi]]:Bhilawa, Bhela, Bhallaataka [[English language|English]]:Marking nut, Oriental cashee ||[[Ramayan]] ||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73|| 3.73.5 ||[[Matanga]] hermitage ||[[File:Semecarpus anacardium (Marking Nut) W IMG 1402.jpg|thumb|200px|Moderate size Deciduous tree]] ||Found in the outer [[Himalayas]], Common in dry or moist deciduous forests
|-
|Ankola (अन्कोल)|| ''[[Alangium salvifolium]]'' ||Ankola ||[[Ramayan]] ||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 ||4.1.80 ||[[Pampa Lake]] ||Tall thorny tree ||Found in [[India]], [[Western Africa]], Madagascar]], [[Southern Asia]], [[Philippines]] and tropical [[Australia]], and the [[Pacific Islands]]
|-
|Arjuna (अर्जुन)|| ''[[Terminalia arjuna]]'' || Indian:Arjuna, Arjunasaadaddaa, Sanmadat, Vellamarda, Sadaru, Kahu, Shardul ||[[Ramayan]] ||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 ||4.1.81 ||[[Pampa Lake]] ||[[File:Fruit I IMG 9577.jpg|thumb|200px|A large evergreen tree]] || Indigenous in [[Africa]] and [[Indo-Malaysia]] region. Cultivated all over [[India]]
|-
|Ashoka (अशोक)|| ''[[Saraca asoca]]'' || Ashoka ||[[Ramayan]] ||Kishkindha Kanda Sarga 1 ||4.1.79||[[Pampa Lake]] ||[[File:Sita-Ashok (Saraca asoca) flowers in Kolkata W IMG 4146.jpg|thumb|200px|A middle sized evergreen tree]] ||Cultivated ingargens throughout [[India]]
|-
|Ashoka (अशोक)|| ''[[Saraca asoca]]'' ||Banjuldruma ||[[Ramayan]]|| ''[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 11 ||3.11.74 ||[[Agastya]]’s hermitage || ||
|-
|Ashoka (अशोक)||''[[Saraca indica]]'' || Ashoka ||[[Ramayan]] ||Aranya Kanda Sarga 15 ||3.15.17 ||[[Panchavati]]|| ||
|-
|Ashoka (अशोक)||''[[Saraca asoca]]'' ||Ashoka ||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73 ||3.73.4 ||[[Matanga]] hermitage || ||
|-
|Ashoka (अशोक)|| ''[[Saraca asoca]]''||Ashoka ||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73 ||3.73.5 ||[[Matanga]] hermitage || ||
|-
|Ashvakarna (अश्वकर्ण)||''[[Vateria indica]]''||Hindi:Dhupa,Ralla English:Indian Copal,White dammar,Piney varnish ||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Bala Kanda]] Sarga 24 ||1.24.15 || [[Malada]] and [[Karusha]] provinces ||[[File:Vateria indica.jpg|thumb|200px|A large,elegant, evergreen tree]] ||[[Western India]],chiefly in evergreen forests, but also occasionally along rivers in deciduous forests
|-
|Ashwakarna (अश्वकर्ण)|| ''[[Vateria indica]]''|| || [[Ramayan]] || [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15 ||3.15.18 ||[[Panchavati]] || ||
|-
|Aśvattha (अश्वत्थ)||''[[Ficus religiosa]]''||Pipal, Pimpalla, Bodhi ||[[Ramayan]] ||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73 ||3.73.3 || [[Matanga]] hermitage ||[[File:Ficus religiosa Bo.jpg|thumb|200px|A large or middle sized deciduous tree]] ||[[Sub-Himalayan]] forests, [[Bengal]], [[Madhya Pradesh]]. Planted elsewhere
|-
|Badari (बदरी)||''[[Zizyphus mauritiana]]''||Indian: Ber, Bora ||[[Ramayan]] ||[[Bala Kanda]] Sarga 24 ||1.24.16 || [[Malada]] and [[Karusha]] ||[[File:Zizyphus mauritiana fruit.jpg|thumb|200px|A small tree or large shrub usually armed]] ||Common in hotter parts of India, cultivated in gardens or found wild in waste places
|-
|Banjula (वञ्जुल)||''[[Saraca asoca]]''||Ashoka ||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 || 4.1.78 ||[[Pampa Lake]] || ||
|-
|Bansha (बांस) || ''[[Dendrocalamus strictus]]'' ||Bamboo, bansalochana ||[[Ramayan]] ||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15 ||3.15.21 ||[[Panchavati]] ||[[File:Bambusa-vulgaris.web.jpg|thumb|200px|Giant clumping bamboo]] ||Found from the Indian subcontinent throughout Southeast Asia
|-
|Bilva (बिल्वा)||''[[Aegle marmelos]]''||Hindi:Bel, English Bael fruit tree ||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 ||4.1.78 ||[[Pampa Lake]]||[[File:Bael (Aegle marmelos) fruit at Narendrapur W IMG 4099.jpg|thumb|200px|A middle sized slender aromatic armed tree]] ||Indigenous to dry [[forests]] on hills and plains of central and southern [[India]], southern [[Nepal]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Thailand]]. It is cultivated throughout India, as well as in [[Sri Lanka]], northern [[Malay Peninsula]], [[Java (island)|Java]] and in the [[Philippines]].
|-
|Bilva (बिल्वा)||''[[Aegle marmelos]]''||Bel ||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 11 ||3.11.74 ||[[Agastya]]’s hermitage || ||
|-
|Bilva (बिल्वा) ||''[[Aegle marmelos]]''||Bel ||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 11 ||3.11.74 ||[[Agastya]]’s hermitage || ||
|-
|Bilva (बिल्वा)||''[[Aegle marmelos]]''||Bel ||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Bala Kanda]] Sarga 24||1.24.15 ||[[Malada]] and [[Karusha]] || ||
|-
|Champaka (चम्पक)||''[[Michelia champaca]]||Champa ||[[Ramayan]] ||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 ||4.1.78||[[Pampa Lake]] ||[[File:White Champaca April 2009.JPG|thumb|200px|A large or middle sized evergreen tree]] || Native to [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]].
|-
|Champaka (चम्पक)||''[[Michelia champaca]]||-||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15||3.15.17 ||[[Panchavati]] || ||
|-
|Chandana (चंदन)||''[[Santalum album]]'' ||Indian:Chandana, English:Sandalwood|| [[Ramayan]] ||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 ||4.1.82 || [[Pampa Lake]] ||[[File:Koeh-128.jpg|thumb|200px|A small or middle sized evergreen semi-parasitic tree]] ||Occurring in semi-arid areas from [[India]] to the [[Oceania|South Pacific]] and the northern coast of [[Australia]]. Originally [[endemism|endemic]] to eastern [[Indonesia]], northern [[Australia]] and tropical areas of the [[India]]n peninsula. It is now [[Indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] to deciduous, dry forests of [[China]], [[India]], [[Hawaii]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Indonesia]], the [[Philippines]] and Northwestern [[Australia]], although the extent of human [[Biological dispersal|dispersal]] to these regions is not known.
|-
|Chandana (चंदन)||''[[Santalum album]]''||Sandalwood || [[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15 ||3.15.18|| [[Panchavati]] || ||
|-
|Chūta (चूत)||''[[Mangifera indica]]''|| Mango ||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 || 4.1.80||[[Pampa Lake]] ||[[Image:Mangifera indica. Tropical Brazil.JPG|thumb|200px|A middle sized evergreen tree]] ||A common tree all over India cultivated for its delicious fruits
|-
|Chūta (चूत)||''[[Mangifera indica]]''||Indian: Aam, Aamba, Aamra, Amb English:Mango||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15 ||3.15.17 ||[[Panchavati]] || ||
|-
|Chūta (चूत)||''[[Mangifera indica]]||Mango ||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73 ||3.73.3 ||[[Matanga]] hermitage || ||
|-
|Devadaru (देवदारु)||''[[Cedrus deodara]]''||Deodar trees ||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 43 ||4-43-13 ||[[Himalayas]] ||[[File:Cedrus deodara Himalajazeder.JPG|thumb|200px|It is a large evergreen coniferous tree reaching 40-50 m tall, exceptionally 60 m, with a trunk up to 3 m diameter. It has a conic crown with level branches and drooping branchlets]] ||Native to the western [[Himalayas]] in eastern [[Afghanistan]], northern [[Pakistan]], north-central India ([[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Uttarakhand]] and [[Kashmir]]), southwesternmost [[Tibet]] and western [[Nepal]].
|-
|Devasakha (देवसख)||''-||- ||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 43 ||4-43-17 ||[[Himalayas]] || ||
|-
|Dhanva (धन्व)||''[[Mimusops elengi]]''|| Bakulla ||[[Ramayan]] ||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73 ||3.73.4 ||[[Matanga]] hermitage||[[File:Maulsari (Mimusops elengi) trees in Kolkata W IMG 2848.jpg|thumb|200px|A small to large sized evergreen tree]] ||Found in tropical forests in [[South Asia]],South east Asia & [[Northern Australia]]. In India found throughout in wet, damp and marshy areas
|-
|Dhava (धव)||''[[Anogeissus latifolia]]''||[[Hindi]]: Dhavda, Bakli ,Dhau ,Dhawa, Dhawra, Dhaora [[English people|English]]: Axlewood, [[Thai language|Thai]]:Takhian-nu, [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]:Raam ||[[Ramayan]] ||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 ||4.1.81 || [[Pampa Lake]]|| A small to medium-sized tree ||Native to the [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Myanmar]], and [[Sri Lanka]]
|-
|Dhava (धव)||''[[Anogeissus latifolia]]||Dhawada ||[[Ramayan]] ||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15 ||3.15.18 ||[[Panchavati]] || ||
|-
|Dhava (धव)||''[[Anogeissus latifolia]]||Dhawada ||[[Ramayan]] ||[[Bala Kanda]] Sarga 24 ||1.24.15 ||[[Malada]] and [[Karusha]] || ||
|-
|Hintāla (हिन्ताल)||''[[Cycas circinalis]]''||Hindi:Jangli madan mast ka phool, Malayalam: Eentu, Eentinpana||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 || 4.1.83 ||[[Pampa Lake]]||[[File:Cycas circinalis male cone in Olomouc.jpg|thumb|200px|A moderate sized beautiful palm]] || Growing naturally throughout south [[India]]
|-
|Jambū (जंबू)||''[[Syzygium cumini]]||Indian:Jāmun, Jambul, English:Jambolan, Black Plum ||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73 ||3.73.3 ||[[Matanga]] hermitage||[[File:Ripe jamun fruits.jpg|thumb|200px|A large evergreen tree]] ||Throughout [[India]]
|-
|Kadamba (कदंब)||'''[[Anthocephalus cadamba]] ||Kadamba || [[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73 ||3.73.4 ||[[Matanga]] hermitage||[[File:Fruit I IMG 1372.jpg|thumb|200px|A large evergreen tropical tree]] ||Native to South and [[Southeast Asia]]
|-
|Karavira (करवीर) ||''[[Nerium indicum]]''||Kannhera ||[[Ramayan]] ||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73 ||3.73.4 ||[[Matanga]] hermitage ||[[File:Nerium oleander flowers leaves.jpg|thumb|200px|An evergreen shrub or small tree]] ||It is native to a broad area from [[Morocco]] and [[Portugal]] eastward through the [[Mediterranean region]] and southern [[Asia]] to [[Yunnan]] in southern parts of [[China]].
|-
| Karnikara (कर्णिकार)|| ''[[Cassia fistula]]''||Hindi: Amaltas English:Golden Shower, Indian laburnum, Drumstick tree ||[[Ramayana]] || [[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 || 4.1.73 ||[[Pampa Lake]] || [[File:Cassia fistula1.jpg|thumb|200px|A medium sized [[deciduous]] tree]]|| Native to southern Asia, from southern [[Pakistan]] east through [[India]] to [[Myanmar]] and south to [[Sri Lanka]].
|-
|Karnikāra (कर्णिकार)|| ''[[Cassia fistula]]''||Amaltas ||[[Ramayan]] ||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 40 ||4-40-56|| [[Udaya Mountain]] || ||
|-
|Karnikāra (कर्णिकार)|| ''[[Cassia fistula]]''||Amaltas ||[[Ramayan]] ||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73 ||3.73.3 || [[Matanga]] hermitage || ||
|-
|Kāsha काश||''[[Saccharum spontaneum]]'' ||Kans grass ||[[Ramayan]] ||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15 || 3.15.22 ||[[Panchavati]] ||[[File:K5601-19.jpg|thumb|200px|A perennial grass, growing up to three meters in height.]] || Native to south Asia.
|-
|Ketaka (केतक) || ''[[Pandanus tectorius]]''||-||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 ||4.1.81 ||[[Pampa Lake]]||[[File:Pandanus tectorius.jpg|thumb|200px|A tree that grows to 4–14 metres]] ||Occurring from near Port Macquarie in New South Wales to northern Queensland, Australia and Indonesia east through the islands of the tropical Pacific Ocean to Hawaii
|-
|Ketaka (केतक) || ''[[Pandanus tectorius]]''||-||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 42 ||4.42.7 & 4.42.11||[[Surashtra]], [[Bahlika]] and [[Chandrachitra]] provinces || -||-
|-
|Ketaka (केतक) || ''[[Pandanus tectorius]]''||-||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 42 ||4.42.11||Cities Murachi, Jatapura, Avanti and Angalepa || -||-
|-

|Ketakī (केतकी)||''[[Pandanus tectorius]]''||Kewada||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1||4.1.77 ||[[Pampa Lake]] ||- ||-
|-
|Ketakī (केतकी)|| ''[[Pandanus tectorius]]'' || Kewda||[[Ramayan]] ||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15 ||3.15.17||[[Panchavati]] ||[[File:Pandanus tectorius.jpg|thumb|200px|A densely branched shrub rarely erect]] ||Seacoast of [[Indian Peninsula]], Port Macquarie in [[New South Wales]] to northern [[Queensland]], [[Australia]] and [[Indonesia]] east through the islands of the tropical Pacific Ocean to [[Hawaii]]
|-
|Khadira (खदिर)||''[[Acacia catechu]]'' ||[[Hindi]]: Khair, Khadira English: Cutch, Catechu, Cachou, Black Cutch ||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15|| 3.15.18|| [[Panchavati]] ||[[File:Koeh-003.jpg|thumb|200px|A moderate sized deciduous, thorny tree]] ||It is found in [[Asia]], [[China]], [[North Africa]], Naturalized in all drier parts of [[India]].
|-
|Kharjūra (खर्जूर)||''[[Phoenix dactylifera]]''||Hindi:खजूर, Pindakhajur, English:Date Palm|| [[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15 ||3.15.16 || [[Panchavati]] || [[File:Kajur.jpg|thumb|200px|A medium-sized tree]]||Originated somewhere in the desert oases of northern [[Africa]], and perhaps also southwest [[Asia]]. Cultivated in many parts of [[India]].
|-
|Kichaka Venu (कीचक वेणू) ||''[[Bambusa arundinacea]]''||[[English language|English]]:Spiny bamboo, [[Hindi]]:Kaantaa baans (काँटा बांस) || [[Mahabharata]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 43||4.43.37 ||Where River Sailoda flows||[[File:Giant Bamboo.jpg|thumb|200px|A graceful spinous perennial erect herb]] ||Wild throughout [[India]] especially in hill forests.
|-
| Kimshuka (किंशुक)|| ''[[Butea monosperma]]''||Indian: Palas, Dhak, Khakara, Kakracha English:Flame of the Forest, [...] tree, Parrot Tree ||[[Ramayana]] || Kishkindha Kanda Sarga 1 || 4.1.75 ||[[Pampa Lake]] || [[File:STS 001 Butea monosperma.jpg|thumb|200px|A medium sized [[deciduous]] tree with somewhat crooked trunk]]|| Native to tropical southern [[Asia]], from [[Pakistan]], [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Laos]], [[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Malaysia]], and western [[Indonesia]]. Common Throughout [[India]]
|-
|Kinshuka (किंशुक)||''[[Butea monosperma]]'' ||Palas||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 ||4.1.82||[[Pampa Lake]] || ||
|-
|Kinshuka (किंशुक)|| ''[[Butea monosperma]]|| Palas ||[[Ramayan]] ||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15||3.15.18||[[Panchavati]] || ||
|-
|Kovidāra (कोविदार)|| ''[[Bauhinia variegata]]||Kachanār||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1|| 4.1.80 || [[Pampa Lake]] ||[[File:Bauhinia variegata flower.jpg|thumb|200px|A small to medium-sized tree]] ||Dry forests in [[India]]
|-
|Kukubha (ककुभ)||''[[Terminalia arjuna]]''||Arjuna||[[Ramayan]]||[[Bala Kanda]] Sarga 24||1.24.15 ||[[Malada]] and [[Karusha]]||[[File:Fruit I IMG 9577.jpg|thumb|200px|A large evergreen tree]] || Indigenous in [[Africa]] and [[Indo-Malaysia]] region. Cultivated all over [[India]]
|-
|Kurantaka (कुरण्टक)||''[[Barleria prionitis]]''||Hindi:Vajradanti, Koraanti-piwali, Katsareya|| [[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1||4.1.80||[[Pampa Lake]] || [[File:Barleria prionitis (Porcupine flower) in Hyderabad, AP W IMG 9993.jpg|thumb|200px|A much branched prickly shrub with yellow flowers]]||Occurs throuout the hotter parts of India.A common undershrub occasionally found wild but generally cultivated for hedge or ornamental purpose
|-
|Kurvaka (कुरवक)||''[[Lawsonia inermis]]''||Hindi:Mehandi, Mendee English:Henna, Hina, Egyptian privet||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1||4.1.82||[[Pampa Lake]] ||[[File:Lawsonia inermis Ypey36.jpg|thumb|200px|A globrous much branched shrub or small tree]] ||It is native to tropical and subtropical regions of [[Africa]], [[southern Asia]], and northern [[Australasia]] in semi-arid zones. Cultivated and naturalized all over India for its leaves
|-
|Kusha (कुश) ||''[[Desmostachya bipinnata]]'' ||Darbha, Kusha ||[[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15||3.15.22||[[Panchavati]] ||A tall tufted perennial grass ||Throughout India in hot and dry places
|-
|Kūṭaśālmalī (कूटशाल्मली) ||''[[Ceiba pentandra]]'' ||Kapok tree||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 40 ||4.40.39||Eastern side of the [[Jambudvipa]] ||[[File:Kapok seeds I IMG 8004.jpg|thumb|200px|The tree grows to 70 m tall, has a very substantial trunk up to 3 m in diameter with buttresses. The trunk and many of the larger branches are densely crowded with very large, robust simple thorns]] ||Native to [[Mexico]], [[Central America]] and the [[Caribbean]], northern [[South America]], and (as the variety C. pentandra var. guineensis) to tropical west Africa.
|-
|Lakuch (लकुच)||''[[Artocarpus hirsutus]]''||Hindi: Vadahar, English:Wild jack, Malayalam :Ayani, Aanjili|| [[Ramayan]] ||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15||3.15.18|| [[Panchavati]] ||An evergreen tall tree ||In evergreen forests of Western Ghats, also cultivated for timber
|-
|Lodhra (लोध्र)||''[[Symplocos racemosa]]''||Indian:Lodhra,Lodh, English:Lodhra tree, Cinchona||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1||4.1.79||[[Pampa Lake]] ||A middle sized evergreen tree or shrub ||[[China]], [[South Asia]], Throughout N.E.India, Occasionally in Konkan along river sides and hill slopes
|-
|Lodhra (लोध्र)||''[[Symplocos racemosa]]''||Indian:Lodhra,Lodh, English:Lodhra tree, Cinchona||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 43||4.43.13||[[Himalayas]] ||A middle sized evergreen tree or shrub ||[[China]], [[South Asia]], Throughout N.E.India, Occasionally in Konkan along river sides and hill slopes
|}

=== List of Plants M-Z in Ramayana ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"; border="5"
! Sanskrit name of plant (Devanagari) !! Botanical name !! Indian names !! Indian epic !!Sarga !! Shloka !!Location in epics !! Habit !! Present Habitat
|-
|Mādhavi (माधवी)||''[[Gaertnera racemosa]]''||Indian:Vāsantī, Madhumalati, Haladvel, Madahavilataa||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 || 4.1.77||[[Pampa Lake]] || A large handsome evergreen climbing shrub||Found throughout the warmer parts of [[Maharashtra]], [[Konkan]], [[Karnataka]], and other parts of [[India]]
|-
|Madhuka (मधूका)||''[[Madhuca indica]]''||Mahuwa||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 11||3.11.74||[[Agastya]]’s hermitage||[[File:Madhuca indica (Mahua) in Hyderabad, AP W IMG 0068.jpg|thumb|200px|An Indian tropical, middle sized to large deciduous tree]] ||Found largely in the central and north Indian plains and forests, forests of [[western India]], and [[Konkan]]
|-
|Madhūka (मधूका)||''[[Madhuca indica]]''|| Mahuwa||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 ||4.1.78||[[Pampa Lake]] || ||
|-
| Mālatī (मालती) || ''[[Jasminum sambac]]''||Common names include ''Arabian Jasmine'', ''Full'' (فل) ([[Arabic]]), ''Bel/Beli'' ([[Bengali language|Bengali]]), ''Mogra'' ([[Hindi]] and [[Marathi]]), ''Mallikā'' ([[Sanskrit]]), ''Kampupot'', ''Melati'' ([[Malay language|Malay]] and [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] Language), ''Sampaguita'' ([[Tagalog language|Filipino]]), ''Mallepuvvu'' ([[Telugu language|Telugu]]), ''Mallikaipu'' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]), ''dundu Mallige'' ([[Kannada language|Kannada]]) and ''Kaliyan'' ([[Urdu]]). ||[[Ramayana]] || [[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 || 4.1.76 ||[[Pampa Lake]] ||[[File:Jasminum sambac 0001.jpg|thumb|200px|A large scrambling or twining shrub]] || Native to southwestern and southern [[Asia]], in the [[Philippines]], [[India]], [[Myanmar]] and [[Sri Lanka]].
|-
| Malati (मालती)|| ''[[Jasminum grandiflorum]]''||Indian: Chameli, Jati, English:Common Jasmine, Spanish Jasmine ||[[Ramayana]] || Kishkindha Kanda Sarga 1 || 4.1.76 ||[[Pampa Lake]]||[[File:Jasminum grandiflorum 1.jpg|thumb|200px|A large scrambling or twining shrub]] ||Native of N.H. Himalayas, wildly grown throughout [[India]]
|-
| Mallikā (मल्लिका) || ''[[Jasminum grandiflorum]]''|| Chameli ||[[Ramayana]] ||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 || 4.1.76 ||[[Pampa Lake]] ||a scandent or sub-erect woody perennial [[shrub]] || Cultivated as an ornamental shrub throughout [[India]]
|-
|Muchukunda (मुचुकुंद)||''[[Pterospermum suberifolium]]''|| Indian:Muchukunda, Muchakunda|| [[Ramayan]] || [[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1|| 4.1.81 ||[[Pampa Lake]] ||A small to medium size tree || Found in forests of [[Karnataka]] and [[Tamil Nadu]]
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|Nāga (नाग)||''[[Mesua ferrea]]''||Indian:Nāgachampa, Naagakeshara, Naagachaafaa, English:Mesua, Ceylon ironwood, Indian rose chestnut, Cobra's saffron or locally, Penaga Lilin,Na (Sinhalese) or Nahar/Nahor||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1||4.1.78||[[Pampa Lake]] ||[[File:MesuaFerrea IronWood.jpg|thumb|200px|A middle or large size evergreen tree with short trunk]] ||It is native to tropical [[Sri Lanka]] but also cultivated in southern [[Nepal]], [[Indochina]], and the [[Malay Peninsula]]. Found in [[Assam]], eastern [[Himalayas]], [[West Bengal]], eastern and Western Ghats.
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|Nāga (नाग)||''[[Mesua ferrea]]''||Nāgachampa ||[[Ramayan]] ||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 ||4.1.83 ||[[Pampa Lake]] || ||
|-
|Nāga (नाग)||''[[Mesua ferrea]]''||Nāgachampa||[[Ramayan]] ||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73 ||3.73.4||[[Matanga]] hermitage || ||
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|Naktamāla (नक्तमाल)||''[[Pongamia pinnata]]||Indian:Karanja, kiramal,Kidamar, English: Indian beech, Pongamia oil tree||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1||4.1.82||[[Pampa Lake]] ||[[File:Pongamia pinnata (Karanj) near Hyderabad W IMG 7633.jpg|thumb|200px|A middle sized glabrous tree]] ||Originated in India and is found throughout Asia. native of western ghats. Found all over India on banks of rivers and streams
|-
|Naktamāla (नक्तमाल)||''[[Pongamia pinnata]]''|| Karanj||[[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73||3.73.4|| [[Matanga]] hermitage || ||
|-
|Nārikela (नारिकेल)||''[[Cocos nucifera]]''||Coconut Palm||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 42 ||4.42.11||Cities Murachi, Jatapura, Avanti and Angalepa ||[[File:1859-Martinique.web.jpg|thumb|200px|A large palm, growing to 30 m tall]]||Throughout the tropics
|-
|Nīla (नील)|| ''[[Ficus bengalensis]]''||Plaksha, Bengal fig, Indian fig, East Indian fig, Indian Banyan or simply Banyan, also borh, nyagrodha and wad or Vad/Vat||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1||4.1.79||[[Pampa Lake]] ||[[File:FicusBengShoot.jpg|thumb|200px|A very large tree with many aerial roots]] ||Endemic to [[Bangladesh]], [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. Found in Sub-Himalayas tract abd western peninsula, planted elsewhere.
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|Nīla (नील)||''[[Ficus bengalensis]]''||Banyan||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73||3.73.4||[[Matanga]] hermitage|| ||
|-
|Nīpa (नीप)||''[[Barringtonia racemosa]]'' ||Indian:Samudraphalla, sadphali, Nivar, English:Small Indian Oak||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15||3.15.18||[[Panchavati]]||[[File:Barringtonia asiatica (flower).jpg|thumb|200px|A moderate or small size tree, with brown, somewhat fibrous bark]] ||Western sea coast of [[India]]
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|Nyagrodha (न्यग्रोध)||''[[Ficus bengalensis]]||Banyan||[[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73||3.73.3||[[Matanga]] hermitage|| ||
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|Padma (पद्म)|| ''[[Nelumbo nucifera]]''|| Hindi:Kamal, English:Indian lotus, sacred lotus, bean of India, or simply lotus ||[[Ramayana]] ||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 || 4.1.76 ||[[Pampa Lake]] ||[[File:Nelumno nucifera open flower - botanic garden adelaide2.jpg|thumb|200px|A handsome aquatic [[herb]]]]|| Native of [[China]], [[Japan]], and [[India]]. Grown throughout warmer parts of [[India]]
|-
|Padmaka (पद्मक)|| ''[[Prunus cerasoides]]''||Himalayan wild cherry||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1|| 4.1.79||[[Pampa Lake]]||[[File:Prunuscerasoides.jpg|thumb|200px|A deciduous cherry tree]] ||Found in [[East Asia]].Its range extends in the Himalayas from Himachal Pradesh in India to southwest China and Burma.
|-
|Padmaka (पद्मक)|| ''[[Prunus cerasoides]]''||Himalayan wild cherry||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 43||4.43.13||[[Himalayas]]||[[File:Prunuscerasoides.jpg|thumb|200px|A deciduous cherry tree]] ||Found in [[East Asia]].Its range extends in the Himalayas from Himachal Pradesh in India to southwest China and Burma.
|-
|Panasa (पनस)||''[[Artocarpus heterophyllus]]||Indian: Kat-hal (कटहल), Phannasa, English: Jack-fruit||[[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 11 || 3.11.74||[[Agastya]]’s hermitage ||[[File:Artocarpus heterophyllus fruits at tree.jpg|thumb|200px|A large evergreen tree]] ||Native to parts of South and [[Southeast Asia]]. Indigenous to [[India]], grows wild in [[Western Ghats]].
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|Panasa (पनस)||''[[Artocarpus heterophyllus]]|| Jackfruit||[[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15||3.15.16||[[Panchavati]] || ||
|-
|Panasa (पनस)||''[[Artocarpus heterophyllus]]||Jackfruit|| [[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73||3.73.3|| [[Matanga]] hermitage|| ||
|-
|Paribhadraka (परिभद्रक)||''[[Erythrina indica]]''||Indian:Pāngārā, Dadap, Mandar, Ferrud, Panara, [[English language|English]]:Tiger's Claw, Indian Coral Tree and Sunshine Tree|| [[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73||3.73.5||[[Matanga]] hermitage||[[File:Flower I IMG 3974.jpg|thumb|200px|A middle sized quick-growing tree]] ||Wild in deciduous forests throughout [[India]]. Native to the tropical and subtropical regions of [[eastern Africa]], [[southern Asia]], [[northern Australia]], and the islands of the Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean east to [[Fiji]].
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|Pāribhadraka (पारिभद्रक)||''[[Erythrina indica]]''||Pāngārā||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1||4.1.80||[[Pampa Lake]] || ||
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|Parnasa (पर्णास)||''[[Ocimum sanctum]]''||Tulasī (तुलसी‌) in Sanskrit,(तुलसी‌) in Nepali, (‌তুলসী) in Bangla, (तुळस) in Marathi, (तुलसी‌) in Hindi, tulasi (తులసి) in Telugu, (തുളസി) in Malayalam, (துளசி) in Tamil, (ತುಳಸಿ) in Kannada, Maduruthala in Sinhalese||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15||3.15.18||[[Panchavati]]||[[File:Starr 080117-1577 Ocimum tenuiflorum.jpg|thumb|200px|An erect herbaceous, much-branched, softly hairy aromatic annual]] ||Tulsi is native throughout the Old World tropics and widespread as a cultivated plant and an escaped [...].cultivated throughout [[India]].
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|Pāṭalā (पाटला)||''[[Stereospermum chelonoides]]''||Indian :Padhala, Adakapari, Padari, Paral, Kirsel, Koosga, Tuatuka, [[English language|English]]:Trumpet flower, Yellow snake tree, Malayalam : Patiri, Poopatiri|| [[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 ||4.1.80 ||[[Pampa Lake]] || A large deciduous tree||Throughout India, growing in deciduous forests. Konkan on slopes of hills, in moist deciduous or evergreen forests
|-
|Pāṭalā (पाटला)||''[[Stereospermum chelonoides]]||Padari ||[[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15||3.15.18|| [[Panchavati]] || ||
|-
|Pāṭalā (पाटला)||''[[Stereospermum chelonoides]]||Padari|| [[Ramayan]]||[[Bala Kanda]] Sarga 24||1.24.15||[[Malada]] and [[Karusha]]|| ||
|-
|Pippali (पिप्पली)||''[[Piper longum]]''||Indian:Pimpalli, Pipal, Pipli, Piplamul, [[English language|English]]:Indian long peppere, Javanese, Indian or Indonesian Long Pepper ||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 11||3.11.74||[[Agastya]]’s hermitage||[[File:Piper longum plant.jpg|thumb|200px|A slender aromatic climber with perennial woody roots]] ||Hotter parts of [[India]]
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|[[Plaksa|Plaksha]] (प्लक्ष)||''[[Ficus religiosa]]'' ||Hindi: Pakar, Malayalam : Ithi, [[English language|English]]: [[Sacred fig]], Fig tree||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73||3.73.3||[[Matanga]] hermitage||[[File:Ficus religiosa Bo.jpg|thumb|200px|A large evergreen tree with few aerial roots]] || Native to [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Sri Lanka]], southwest [[China]] and [[Indochina]] east to [[Vietnam]].
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|Priyāla (प्रियाल)||''[[Buchanania lanzan]]''|| [[Hindi]]: Chironji (चिरौन्जी), Piyal, Achar, [[Marathi]]: चारोळी, [[English language|English]]:Almondi tree || [[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73||3.73.3||[[Matanga]] hermitage||[[File:Charoli.JPG|thumb|200px|An evergreen tree with a straight, cylindrical trunk]]||Common throughout India in dry or moist deciduous forests or in semi evergreen forests
|-
|Punnāga (पुन्नाग)||''[[Calophyllum inophyllum]]''||Indian:Undi, Undala, Unang, Surangi, Surpunka, Sultan champa, [[English language|English]]: Alexandrian Laurel, [[Tamil language|Tamil]]:Pinnai||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15||3.15.16||[[Panchavati]] ||[[File:Starr 010309-0546 Calophyllum inophyllum.jpg|thumb|200px|A middle sized evergreen sub-marine tree]] ||It is native from [[East Africa]], southern coastal [[India]] to [[Malesia]] and [[Australia]]. Coastal regions and littoral forest of [[India]] and grown as an ornamental tree.
|-
|Punnāga (पुन्नाग)||''[[Calophyllum inophyllum]]''||-||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 42 ||4.42.7||Surashtra, Bahlika and Chandrachitra provinces || -||-
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|Pūrnaka (पूर्णक)||NA|| NA||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 ||4.1.80||[[Pampa Lake]] || ||
|-
|Raktā रक्ता||''[[Rubia cordifolia]]''||Indian Madder|| [[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 ||4.1.82 || [[Pampa Lake]] ||[[File:Rubia.tinctorum02.jpg|thumb|200px|A very variable, prickly creeper or climber]] ||Throughout [[India]] in hilly districts, [[Konkan]]
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|Sāla (साल)||''[[Vateria indica]]''||[[Hindi]]:Dhupa,Ralla [[English language|English]]:Indian Copal,White dammar,Piney varnish, [[Kannada]]: ಧೂಪದ ಮರ||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 11||3.11.74||[[Agastya]]’s hermitage||[[File:Vateria indica.jpg|thumb|200px|A large,elegant, evergreen tree]] ||Western India,chiefly in evergreen forests, but also occasionally along rivers in deciduous forests
|-
|Sala (साल)||''[[Vateria indica]]''||-||[[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15 || 3.15.16||[[Panchavati]] || ||
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|Sala (साल)||''[[Vateria indica]]''||- || [[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 40 ||4.40.56||[[Udaya Mountain]] || ||
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|[[Salmali|Śalmalī]] (शाल्मली)||''[[Bombax ceiba]]||Indian:Semal (सेमल), Shaalmali, kaantisenbal, huttian, laala-saanwar, Kate-sawar, Nurma, Deokapaas, Shimal, Savari, Shembal [[English language|English]]:cotton tree or tree cotton||[[Ramayan]] || [[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1||4.1.82||[[Pampa Lake]] ||[[File:Semal (Bombax ceiba) flowering tree in Kolkata W IMG 4143.jpg|thumb|200px|A lofty,deciduous tree buttressed at the base]] ||Throughout hotter parts of [[India]]. The tree is widely planted in [[Malay states|Malay]], [[Indonesia]], south [[China]], [[Hong Kong]] and [[Taiwan]].
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|[[Shami]] (शमी)||''[[Prosopis cineraria]]||Ghaf (United Arab Emirates), Khejri, Jant/Janti, Sangri (Rajasthan), jand (Punjabi), kandi (Sind), Banni (Kannada), Vanni (Tamil), sami, sumri (Gujarat).||[[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15||3.15.18||[[Panchavati]] ||[[File:Khejri.jpg|thumb|200px|A small to medium size tree]] ||Occurs in the dry and arid regions of [[India]]. It is one of the chief indigenous trees of the plains of the Punjab, Western [[Rajasthan]], [[Gujarat]], [[Bundelkhand]], [[Delhi]], [[Agra]], dry parts of Central and Southern India, [[Maharashtra]] (near [[Nasik]]), [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Karnataka]] (south of [[Godavari]]). Occurs in [[Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iran]].
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|Shamī (शमी)||''[[Prosopis cineraria]]||Khejdi ||[[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15||3.15.22||[[Panchavati]]|| ||
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|[[Sanjeevani|Sanjīvanī]] (संजीवनी)||''[[Selaginella bryopteris]]||Sanjīvanī ||[[Ramayan]]||[[Yuddha Kanda]] Sarga 89||6.89.16||Mt. [[Dronagiri]] ([[Himalayas]])||[[File:Selaginella-sp.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Selaginella bryopteris]] herb]] || Grows on the hills of tropical areas, particularly the [[Arawali]] mountain terrains from east to west in India.
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|Śimśupa (शिंशुप)||''[[Dalbergia latifolia]]||[[sanskrit]]:Simsipa, Sinsipa, Krishnasara, Gurusara, Krishnasimsapa, [[English language|English]] : Rose wood, Indian rose wood, Black wood [[Hindi]] : Shisham, Sitsal, [[Malayalam]] : Eeti, Kariveeti, Veeti ||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1||4.1.81||[[Pampa Lake]]|| A large sized tree ||Growing naturally in wet deciduous forests of [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Madhya Pradesh]] and [[Kerala]], in [[India]].
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|Sindhuvara (सिन्धुवार)||''[[Vitex negundo]]''||[[English language|English]]: Five-leaved chaste tree, [[Hindi]]: Nirgundi, Nirguddi, Sambhalu, Shivari, Nisida, Nigudi ||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1||4.1.77||[[Pampa Lake]] ||[[File:Vitex negundo leaves.jpg|thumb|200px|A large aromatic shrub or small tree]]||Throughout [[India]] in warmer zones
|-
|Śiriśa (शिरीष)||''[[Albizzia lebbeck]]''||Indian:Siras, Shirisha, Kala-siris, Chichola, Chichwa||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1||4.1.81||[[Pampa Lake]] ||A large, erect, unarmed deciduous, spreading tree ||A road-side tree common throughout [[India]]
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|Supuṣpī (सुपुष्पी|| ''[[Clitoria ternatea]]||[[English language|English]]: Butterfly pea, blue pea vine, mussel-shell climber, pigeon wings, [[Bangla]]/ [[Hindi]]:Aparājitā, [[Malayalam]]:Sankhupushpam, ശംഖുപുഷ്പം, [[Marathi]]:Gokarna,[[Sanskrit]]:Aparajita, saukarnika, ardrakarni, girikarnika, supuspi, mohanasini, vishadoshaghni, [[Tamil language|Tamil]]:Sangu pu ||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1||4.1.77||[[Pampa Lake]] ||[[File:Starr 980529-1406 Clitoria ternatea.jpg|thumb|200px|A pretty perennial twiner with blue or white flowers]] || A common garden plant;also occurs among hedges all over [[India]]. Native to tropical equatorial [[Asia]], but has been introduced to [[Africa]], [[Australia]] and the [[New World]].
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|Surakta (सुरक्त)||''[[Pterocarpus santalinus]]''||[[English language|English]]:Red sandalwood, Red Sanders, Indian: Rakta chandana, Laal chandan ||[[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73||3.73.5||[[Matanga]] hermitage ||[[File:Pterocarpus santalinus in Talakona forest, AP W IMG 8145.jpg|thumb|200px|A tall deciduous tree]] ||It is mainly found in south India particularly in [[Kadapa]] and [[Chittoor]] on the [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]] border and neighbouring areas of [[Karnataka]], [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Maharashtra]].
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|Syandana (स्यंदन)||''[[Lagerstroemia speciosa]]''||[[English language|English]]: Queen crape, Myrtle, Pride of India, Indian: Taaman, Jarul, Mota-bondara||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1||4.1.82||[[Pampa Lake]] ||[[File:Jarul.jpg|thumb|200px|A small to medium-sized deciduous tree]] ||It is grown in [[South East Asia]], [[India]] and the [[Philippines]]. It is also widely cultivated as an [[ornamental plant]] in tropical and [[Subtropics|subtropical areas]]. In India found in Western and Eastern Ghats; [[Assam]]; [[Chittagong]], {{dn|Chota Nagpur}}.
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|Syandana (स्यंदन)||''[[Lagerstroemia speciosa]]''|| || [[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15 ||3.15.18||[[Panchavati]] || ||
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|Tāla (ताल)||''[[Borassus flabellifer]]''||[[English language|English]]: Asian palmyra palm, Toddy palm, Sugar palm, Cambodian palm, Palmyra, Ice-apple, Indian: Taad (ताड), Tari ([[Hindi]]), Tal ([[Bengali language|Bengali]]), Nungu ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]), Thaati/Munjalu ([[Telugu]]), [[Munjal]] ([[Urdu]]), Tnaot ({{dn|Khmer}}), Lontar([[Indonesia]]n), Akadiru ([[East Timor]]ese), Tao ([[Divehi]]), Tadfali (Gujarati language|Gujarati]], Targula ([[Konkani language|Konkani]]) . ||[[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15||3.15.16||[[Panchavati]] ||[[File:Borassus flabellifer.jpg|thumb|200px|A very tall,erect, magnificent dioecious palm]] ||Grows all over the country. It is also common in [[Thailand]], especially in the northeast or [[Isaan]] province.
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|Tāla (ताल)||''[[Borassus flabellifer]]''|| || [[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 40 ||4.40.53/56||[[Udaya Mountain]] || -||-
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|Tāla (ताल)||''[[Borassus flabellifer]]''|| || [[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 42 ||4.42.46||Between Mt. {{dn|Meru}} and Mt. [[Astaadri]] ||- ||-
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|Tamāla (तमाल)||''[[Garcinia hanburyi]]||Indian:Tamal, [[English language|English]]:Gambojia, Gamboge, Indian Gamboge tree||[[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15||3.15.16||[[Panchavati]] ||A small or middle sized evergreen tree ||[[Siam]], [[Cochin]], [[China]], In the evergreen forests of [[Assam]] and [[Khasi]] hills
|-
|Tamāla (तमाल)||''[[Garcinia hanburyi]]''||-||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 40 ||4-40-56||Udaya Mountain||-
|-
|Tamāla (तमाल)||''[[Garcinia hanburyi]]''||-||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 42 ||4.42.11||Cities Murachi, Jatapura, Avanti and Angalepa || -||-
|-
|Tilaka (तिलक)||''[[Cinnamomum iners]]''||[[English language|English]] :cassia bark, Cinnamum, [[Hindi]] :Daalachini, Tejpat , Tamaal saala ||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1||4.1.78||[[Pampa Lake]] || [[File:Starr 010419 0038 cinnamomum camphora.jpg|thumb|200px|A middle sized tree]]||Cultivated in [[India]], Found in [[Burma]] and [[China]].
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|Tilaka (तिलक)||''[[Cinnamomum iners]]''||-||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1||4.1.83|| [[Pampa Lake]] || ||
|-
|Tilaka (तिलक)||''[[Cinnamomum iners]]''||-|| [[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15||3.15.17|| [[Panchavati]]|| ||
|-
|Tilaka (तिलक)||''[[Cinnamomum iners]]''||-||[[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73||3.73.4||[[Matanga]] hermitage || ||
|-
|Tinduka (तिन्दुक)||''[[Diospyros melanoxylon]]||English:Indian persimon, Indian: Tendu, Gabh,Tedu, Tembhurnnee, Tenddu, Timburi, Kendu ||[[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 11||4.11.74||[[Agastya]]’s hermitage || A middle sized evergreen tree||Throughout [[India]].
|-
|Tinduka (तिन्दुक)||''[[Diospyros melanoxylon]]||Tendu||[[Ramayan]]||[[Bala Kanda]] Sarga 24||1.24.15 ||[[Malada]] and [[Karusha]] || ||
|-
|Tinduka (तिन्दुक)||''[[Diospyros melanoxylon]]|| Tendu||[[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 73||3.73.3|| [[Matanga]] hermitage|| ||
|-
|Tiniśa (तिनिश)||''[[Lagerstroemia speciosa]]''||[[English language|English]]: Queen crape, Myrtle, Pride of India, Indian: Taaman, Jarul, Mota-bondara||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 15||3.15.16||[[Panchavati]] ||[[File:Jarul.jpg|thumb|200px|A small to medium-sized deciduous tree]] ||It is grown in [[South East Asia]], [[India]] and the [[Philippines]]. It is also widely cultivated as an [[ornamental plant]] in tropical and [[Subtropics|subtropical areas]]. In India found in Western and Eastern Ghats; [[Assam]]; [[Chittagong]], {{dn|Chota Nagpur}}.
|-
|Tinisha (तिनिश)||''[[Lagerstroemia speciosa]]||-||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1||4.1.82||[[Pampa Lake]] || ||
|-
|-Tinisha (तिनिश)||''[[Lagerstroemia speciosa]]||-||[[Ramayan]]||[[Aranya Kanda]] Sarga 11||4.11.74||[[Agastya]]’s hermitage || ||
|-
|Uddālaka (उद्दालक)||''[[Cordia myxa]]''||Indian:Lasora, Bhokara, Shelvant, [[English language|English]]: Assyrian plum, Sebeston plum, Large sebestan||[[Ramayan]] || [[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1||4.1.81 || [[Pampa Lake]] || A medium-sized broad-leaved deciduous tree||In the Indian subcontinent, it is seen coming up naturally and growing abundantly from Myanmar in the East to Afghanistan in the West
|-
|Uddālaka (उद्दालक)||''[[Cordia myxa]]''||-||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 42 ||4.42.7||Surashtra, Bahlika and Chandrachitra provinces || -||-
|-
|Vakula (वकुल)||''[[Mimusops elengi]]''||Indian:Vakula, Bakulla, Maulsari, Ovalli||[[Ramayan]]|| [[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 || 4.1.78||[[Pampa Lake]] ||[[File:Maulsari (Mimusops elengi) trees in Kolkata W IMG 2848.jpg|thumb|200px|A small to large sized evergreen tree]] ||Found in tropical forests in [[South Asia]],South east Asia & [[Northern Australia]]. In India found throughout in wet, damp and marshy areas
|-
|Vakula (वकुल)||''[[Mimusops elengi]]''||-||[[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 42 ||4.42.7||[[Surashtra]], [[Bahlika]] and [[Chandrachitra]] provinces || -||-
|-
|Vāsantī (वासन्ती||''[[Hiptage benghalensis]]||Indian:Vāsantī, Madhumalati, Haladvel, Madahavilataai|| [[Ramayan]]||[[Kishkindha Kanda]] Sarga 1 ||4.1.77 ||[[Pampa Lake]] || A large handsome evergreen climbing shrub||Found throughout the warmer parts of [[Maharashtra]], [[Konkan]], [[Karnataka]], and other parts of [[India]]
|}

== Flora of Mahabharata epic ==
===Legend of the Shami Tree===
[[File:Khejri.jpg|thumb|The Shami Tree (''[[Prosopis cineraria]]'') was used to hide [[Arjuna]]'s [[Gandiva]]]]
There is a little-known legend associated with [[Vijayadashami]] festival, one associated with the [[Mahabharata]]. For reasons impossible to delineate here, the [[Pandava]]s underwent a period of exile, being 12 years of dwelling in the forest followed by a year of exile incognito. Disguise being indispensable during the latter period, the Pandavas found it necessary to lay aside, for the length of that year, the many divine and distinctive weapons that they possessed such as [[Arjuna]]'s [[Gandiva]]. These they secreted in a '[[Shami]]' tree (''[[Prosopis cineraria]]'') in the vicinity of their chosen place of incognito residence. It is said that the Shami tree chosen by the Pandavas stood inside a cremation ground. It was chosen to render detection that much less likely. The Pandavas wrapped their weapons in a white cloth and concealed this on that shami tree, making the weapons look like a dead body. Mahabharata Book IV [[Virata Parva]] Chapter 5 mentions that on the southerns bank of River Yamuna in Viratanagara hides his bow Gandiva in Shami tree.<ref>iyaṃ kūṭe manuṣyendra gahahā mahatī śamī, bhīma śākhā durārohā śmaśānasya samīpataḥ ([[Mahabharata]]:IV.5.12)</ref> That Shami tree was in the midst of an out-of-the way forest abounding in beasts and snakes, and was in the vicinity of a dreary cemetery. At the end of a year, they returned to the spot, found their weaponry intact, and worshipped in thanksgiving both the Shami tree and the Goddess Durga, presiding deity of strength and victory. Meanwhile, the [[Kaurava]]s had invaded that area, suspecting the residence of the Pandavas there. Upon finishing their devotions, the Pandavas made straight to battle, and won the contest comprehensively. The day that all these events occurred on has since been known as "Vijayadashami", where "Vijaya" is the Sanskrit word for "Victory".
The fact of the comprehensive success of the Pandavas in their endeavour has been extrapolated to the everyday ventures of the common man today. Even to this day, people exchange Shami leaves and wish each other victory in their own ventures and efforts.

=== Kuru- Jangla region ===
The historian K R Qanungo<ref>History of the Jats, Ed [[Dr Vir Singh]], 2003, p.7</ref> mentions incidence from [[Mahabharata]] that there is a town named {{dn|Sakala}} and river named [[Apaga (river)|Apaga]] where section of the [[Bahika]]s, known as the [[Jartika]]s, dwell. He mentions about a [[Bahika]] who had to sojourn for a time in {{dn|Kuru}}-[[Jangladesh|jungal country]] sang the following song about the women of his country. He also mentions here three important tree species also:

:"Though a [[Bahika]], I am at present an exile in {{dn|Kuru}}-[[Jangladesh|jangal country]]; that tall and fair-complexioned wife of mine, dressed in her fine blanket certainly remembers me when she retires to rest. Oh! when shall I go back to my country crossing again the Satadru (the Sutlej) and Iravati and see beautiful females of fair complexion, wearing stout bangles, dressed in blanket and skins, eye-sides coloured with dye of ''Manshila'', forehead, cheek and chin painted wit collyrium (tatooing ?). When shall we eat under the pleasant shade of ''[[Prosopis cineraria|Shami]]'' ([[Prosopis cineraria]]), ''[[Peelu]]'' (''[[Salvadora oleoides]]'') and ''[[Karir]]'' (''[[Capparis decidua]]''), loaves and balls of fried barley powder with waterless churned curd (''kunjik''), and gathering strength, take away the clothes of the wayfarers and beat them?"
=== List of Plants A-L in Mahabharata ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"; border="5"
! Sanskrit name of plant (Devanagari) !! Botanical name !! Indian names !! Indian epic !!Parvaa !! Shloka !!Location in epics !! Habit !! Present Habitat
|-
|Amrataka आम्रातक ||''[[Spondias pinnata]]''||[[English language|English]]:Bile tree, Wild Mango, [[Hindi]]:Aambaada, Jungli Aam|| [[Mahabharata]] || [[Shalya Parva]]||IX.36.59 ||[[Sarasvati River]] ||A middle sized deciduous glabrous tree below 15 m. ||Common tree all over in wild as well as in cultivation
|-
|Arimeda अरिमेद ||''[[Acacia farnesiana]]''||[[Hindi]]:Devabaabhulla, Gandha babul, Kankar, Vilayati kikar, [[English language|English]]:Needle Bush|| [[Mahabharata]] ||[[Drona Parva]]||VII.153.24 ||[[Kurukshetra war]]||[[File:Acaciafarnesiana1web.jpg|thumb|200px|A thorni bush or small tree]] ||Native to [[Mexico]] and [[Central America]], the species has a pantropical distribution incorporating [[Northern Australia]] and [[Southern Asia]]. Grown throughout [[India]], often planted in gardens
|-
|Ashtapadika आष्टापदिक ||''[[Vallaris dichotoma]]||Padika, Bhardravalli, Bhadramunja|| [[Mahabharata]]|| [[Anusasana Parva]]|| XIII.54.6|| King [[Kusika]] country on the banks of the Ganga belonging to the [[Gandharva]]s || ||
|-
|Asoka अशोक||''[[Saraca asoca]]''|| Ashoka|| [[Mahabharata]]|| [[Anusasana Parva]]||XIII.54.4|| King [[Kusika]] country || [[File:Sita-Ashok (Saraca asoca) flowers in Kolkata W IMG 4146.jpg|thumb|200px|A middle sized evergreen tree]] ||Cultivated ingargens throughout [[India]]
|-
|Aswattha अश्वत्थ||''[[Ficus religiosa]]''||Pipal, Pimpalla, Bodhi||[[Mahabharata]]|| [[Shalya Parva]]||IX.3.58 ||[[Sarasvati River]]|| [[File:Ficus religiosa Bo.jpg|thumb|200px|A large or middle sized deciduous tree]] ||[[Sub-Himalayan]] forests, [[Bengal]], [[Madhya Pradesh]]. Planted elsewhere
|-
|Atimukta अतिमुक्तक|| ''[[Hiptage benghalensis]]''||[[Hindi]]:Madhumalati, Madhumaalati, Vāsantī, Haladvel, Madahavilataa || [[Mahabharata]]|| [[Shalya Parva]]|| IX.36.60 ||[[Sarasvati River]]||A large handsome evergreen climbing shrub ||Found throughout the warmer parts of [[Maharashtra]], [[Konkan]], [[Karnataka]], and other parts of [[India]]
|-
|Atimukta || ''[[Hiptage benghalensis]]''||-|| [[Mahabharata]]||[[Anusasana Parva]]||XIII.54.4 ||King Kusika country ||-||-
|-
|Badari बदरी ||''[[Zizyphus mauritiana]]||Indian: Ber, Bora ||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Vana Parva]]||III.174.23 || [[Dvaita Forest]], [[Kurukshetra]] [[Sarasvati River]] || [[File:Zizyphus mauritiana fruit.jpg|thumb|200px|A small tree or large shrub usually armed]] ||Common in hotter parts of India, cultivated in gardens or found wild in waste places
|-
|Badari बदरी ||''[[Zizyphus mauritiana]]''||Indian: Ber, Bora ||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Drona Parva]]||VII.153.24 ||[[Kurukshetra war]] || - ||-
|-
|Badari बदरी ||''[[Zizyphus mauritiana]]''||Indian: Ber, Bora || [[Mahabharata]]||[[Shalya Parva]]||IX.36.58||[[Sarasvati River]]|| - || -
|-
|Bhavya भव्य|| ''[[Dillenia indica]]||[[Sanskrit]]:Bhava, Bhavya, Bhavishya, Bhavan, Vaktrashodhan, Pichchilbeeja [[English language|English]]:Sandpaper tree [[Hindi]]: [[Malayalam]]: Kudapunna, Pattipunna, Neitekku, [[Bengali language|Bengali]]:chalta, [[Assamese language|Assamese]]:outenga|| [[Mahabharata]]|| [[Anusasana Parva]]||XIII.54.5||King [[Kusika]] country||[[File:Leaves & Buds I IMG 8416.jpg|thumb|200px|An evergreen large shrub or small to medium-sized tree growing to 15 m]] ||Throughout [[India]] growing wild, Native to southeastern Asia, from India, [[Bangladesh]] and [[Sri Lanka]] east to southwestern [[China]] ([[Yunnan]]) and [[Vietnam]], and south through [[Thailand]] to [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]]
|-
|Bilva बिल्वा||''[[Aegle marmelos]]''||Bel||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Vana Parva]]||III.174.23 ||[[Dvaita Forest]], [[Kurukshetra]] [[Sarasvati River]]||[[File:Bael (Aegle marmelos) fruit at Narendrapur W IMG 4099.jpg|thumb|200px|A middle sized slender aromatic armed tree]] ||Indigenous central and southern [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Thailand]]. It is cultivated throughout India, [[Sri Lanka]], [[Malay Peninsula]], [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Philippines]].
|-
|Bilwa ||''[[Aegle marmelos]]''||- ||[[Mahabharata]]|| [[Shalya Parva]]||IX.3.59 ||[[Sarasvati River]]||-||-
|-
|Champaka चम्पक||''[[Michelia champaca]]||Champa||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Anusasana Parva]]|| XIII.54.5||King [[Kusika]] country || [[File:White Champaca April 2009.JPG|thumb|200px|A large or middle sized evergreen tree]] || Native to [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]].
|-
|Champaka चम्पक ||''[[Michelia champaca]] ||- ||[[Mahabharata]] ||[[Drona Parva]]|| VII.153.24 ||[[Kurukshetra war]] ||- ||-
|-
|Dhava धव||''[[Anogeissus latifolia]]''||[[Hindi]]: Dhavda, Bakli ,Dhau ,Dhawa, Dhawra, Dhaora [[English people|English]]: Axlewood, [[Thai language|Thai]]:Takhian-nu, [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]:Raam ||[[Mahabharata]] ||[[Anusasana Parva]]|| XIII.54.4 ||King [[Kusika]] country ||A small to medium-sized tree ||Native to the [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Myanmar]], and [[Sri Lanka]]
|-
|Inguda इङ्गुद||''[[Balanites roxburghii]]|| [[English language|English]]:Desert date,Indian:Hinganbet, Ingudi, Hingoli, Hingun ||[[Mahabharata]]|| [[Shalya Parva]]||IX.36.58 ||[[Sarasvati River]] ||[[File:Balanites roxburghii1.JPG|thumb|A spiny, evergreen tree]] ||Common in open sandy plains of Indian peninsula, western [[Rajasthan]], west [[Bengal]], [[Maharashtra]] and drier parts of [[India]]
|-
|Inguda इङ्गुद|| ''[[Balanites roxburghii]] || - ||[[Mahabharata]]|| [[Vana Parva]]|| III.174.23 || [[Dvaita Forest]], [[Kurukshetra]] [[Sarasvati River]]||- ||-
|-
|Ingudi इङ्गुद || ''[[Balanites roxburghii]] ||- ||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Drona Parva]]|| VII.153.24||[[Kurukshetra war]]||- ||-
|-
|Karira करीर ||''[[Capparis decidua]]''||kerda, kair, karir, kirir, karril||[[Mahabharata]]|| [[Shalya Parva]]||IX.36.58||[[Sarasvati River]] ||[[Image:Kair.jpg|thumb|200px| A small much branched [[tree]] or [[shrub]]]]||[[arid]] regions in [[Africa]], Middle East and southern [[Asia]], including the [[Thar desert]].
|-
|Karira करीर|| ''[[Capparis decidua]]''|| - ||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Vana Parva]]||III.174.23 ||[[Dvaita Forest]], [[Kurukshetra]] [[Sarasvati River]] ||- ||-
|-
|Karira करीर ||''[[Capparis decidua]]''||- ||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Drona Parva]]||VII.153.24||-[[Kurukshetra war]]- || ||
|-
|Karira करीर ||''[[Capparis decidua]]''|| - ||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Karna Parva]]||VIII.30.24 || {{dn|Kuru}}-[[Jangal]] country || -||-
|-
|Karnikara कर्णिकार||''[[Cassia fistula]]''||Hindi: Amaltas English:Golden Shower, Indian laburnum, Drumstick tree ||[[Mahabharata]]|| [[Anusasana Parva]]|| XIII.54.5 ||King [[Kusika]] country || [[File:Cassia fistula1.jpg|thumb|200px|A medium sized [[deciduous]] tree]]|| Native to southern Asia, from southern [[Pakistan]] east through [[India]] to [[Myanmar]] and south to [[Sri Lanka]].
|-
|Kashanda कषण्ड|| NA || NA||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Shalya Parva]]|| IX.36.60 ||[[Sarasvati River]]|| ||
|-
|Kashmarya काश्मर्य||''[[Berberis vulgaris]]''||[[English language|English]]:European barberry, Indian:Kashmal||[[Mahabharata]]|| [[Shalya Parva]]||IX.36.58||[[Sarasvati River]] ||[[File:Illustration Berberis vulgaris0.jpg|thumb|200px|It is a deciduous shrub growing up to 4 m high.]] ||Native to central and southern [[Europe]], northwest [[Africa]] and [[western Asia]]; it is also naturalised in northern Europe, including the [[British Isles]] and [[Scandinavia]], and [[North America]].
|-
|Ketaka केतक||''[[Pandanus tectorius]]''|| Indian: Kewada, Ktetaki, Keura, Gagandhul||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Anusasana Parva]]||XIII.54.4||King [[Kusika]] country|| [[File:Pandanus tectorius.jpg|thumb|200px|A densely branched shrub rarely erect]]||Seacoast of [[Indian Peninsula]]
|-
|Khadira खदिर ||''[[Acacia catechu]]''||[[Hindi]]: Khair, Khadira [[English language|English]]: Cutch, Catechu, Cachou, Black Cutch || [[Mahabharata]]||[[Vana Parva]]||III.174.23||[[Dvaita Forest]], [[Kurukshetra]] [[Sarasvati River]]|| [[File:Koeh-003.jpg|thumb|200px|A moderate sized deciduous, thorny tree]] ||It is found in [[Asia]], [[China]], [[North Africa]], Naturalized in all drier parts of [[India]].
|-
|Kovidāra कोविदार ||''[[Bauhinia variegata]]||Kachanār || [[Mahabharata]]||[[Drona Parva]]||VII.153.24||[[Kurukshetra war]]|| [[File:Bauhinia variegata flower.jpg|thumb|200px|A small to medium-sized tree]] ||Dry forests in [[India]]
|-
|Kunda || ''[[Jasminum pubescens]]''||NA||[[Mahabharat|| || ||
|}

=== List of Plants M-Z in Mahabharata ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"; border="5"
! Sanskrit name of plant (Devanagari) !! Botanical name !! Indian names !! Indian epic !!Parva !! Shloka !!Location in epics !! Habit !! Present Habitat
|-
|Nyagrodha (न्यग्रोध)||''[[Ficus bengalensis]]''|||'''Plaksha''', Bengal fig, Indian fig, East Indian fig, Indian Banyan or simply Banyan, also borh, nyagrodha and wad or Vad/Vat|| [[Mahabharata]]||[[Drona Parva]]||VII.153.24||[[Kurukshetra war]]|| [[File:FicusBengShoot.jpg|thumb|200px|A very large tree with many aerial roots]] ||Endemic to [[Bangladesh]], [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. Found in Sub-Himalayas tract abd western peninsula, planted elsewhere.
|-
|Palasa || ''[[Butea monosperma]]''||Indian: '''Palas''', Dhak, Khakara, Kakracha English:Flame of the Forest, [...] tree, Parrot Tree ||[[Mahabharata]]|| [[Shalya Parva]]||IX.36.58||[[Sarasvati River]]|| [[File:STS 001 Butea monosperma.jpg|thumb|200px|A medium sized [[deciduous]] tree with somewhat crooked trunk]]|| Native to tropical southern [[Asia]], from [[Pakistan]], [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Laos]], [[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Malaysia]], and western [[Indonesia]]. Common Throughout [[India]]
|-
|Panasa पनस|| ''[[Artocarpus heterophyllus]]''||Indian: Kat-hal (कटहल), Phannasa, English: Jack-fruit|| [[Mahabharata]] ||[[Shalya Parva]]||IX.36.58 ||Sarasvati River|| [[File:Artocarpus heterophyllus fruits at tree.jpg|thumb|200px|A large evergreen tree]] ||Native to parts of South and [[Southeast Asia]]. Indigenous to [[India]], grows wild in [[Western Ghats]].
|-
|Panasa पनस||-|| -||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Anusasana Parva]]|| XIII.54.5||King Kusika country|| -||-
|-
|Parijata पारिजात|| ''[[Nyctanthes arbortristis]]''||Indian:Paarijaat, Praajakt, Harsinghar,Seoli, Khurasli, [[English language|English]]:Indian mourner, Night jasmine, Coral jasmine|| [[Mahabharata]]||[[Shalya Parva]]||IX.36.60 ||[[Sarasvati River]] ||[[File:Flower & flower buds I IMG 2257.jpg|thumb|200px| It is a hardy shrub or a small tree.]]|| Native to [[India]], southern [[Asia]] from northern [[Pakistan]] and [[Nepal]] to [[Thailand]]
|-
|Parushaka परूषक||NA||NA||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Shalya Parva]]||IX.36.59||[[Sarasvati River]]|| ||
|-
|Pilu पीलु||''[[Salvadora oleoides]]''||Indian:Vann, [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]:ون/ਵਣ, [[Hindi]]:जाल/पीलू [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]]:Jar || [[Mahabharata]]|| [[Shalya Parva]]|| IX.36.59||[[Sarasvati River]]||[[File:Khabbar (Salvadora oleoides), Hodal (Faridabad, Haryana) I IMG 1194.jpg|thumb|200px|A small bushy evergreen tree]] ||Found in [[India]] and [[Pakistan]].
|-
|Pilu पीलु||''[[Salvadora oleoides]]''|| -||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Sabha Parva]]||II.47.4||{{dn|Kamboja}} country ||-||-
|-
|Pilu पीलु|| ''[[Salvadora oleoides]]''|| -||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Vana Parva]]||III.174.23||[[Dvaita Forest]], [[Kurukshetra]] [[Sarasvati River]]||-||-
|-
|Pilu पीलु ||''[[Salvadora oleoides]]''|| -||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Drona Parva]]||VII.153.24||[[Kurukshetra war]]
|-
|Pilu पीलु||''[[Salvadora oleoides]]''||-||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Karna Parva]]||VIII.30.24||{{dn|Kuru}}-[[jangal]] country|| ||
|-
|Plaksha ||''[[Ficus religiosa]]''||Pipal, Pimpalla, Bodhi|| [[Mahabharata]]||[[Shalya Parva]]||IX.36.58||[[Sarasvati River]]|| [[File:Ficus religiosa Bo.jpg|thumb|200px|A large or middle sized deciduous tree]]||
|-
|Plaksha पलक्ष||''[[Ficus religiosa]]''|| -||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Vana Parva]]||III.174.23||[[Dvaita Forest]], [[Kurukshetra]], [[Sarasvati River]]|| ||
|-
|Plaksha पलक्ष||''[[Ficus religiosa]]''||-||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Drona Parva]]||VII.153.24||[[Kurukshetra war]]|| ||
|-
|Rohitaka रौहीतक ||''[[Tecomella undulata]]||Rohida, Desert teak||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Vana Parva]]||III.174.23||[[Dvaita Forest]], [[Kurukshetra]], [[Sarasvati River]]||[[Image:Rohida1.jpg|left|thumb|200px|A [[deciduous]] or nearly [[evergreen]] tree of arid and semi arid regions.]] ||Restricted to the drier parts of the [[Arabia]], southern [[Pakistan]] and northwest [[India]] up to an elevation of 1200 metres. In [[Pakistan]] it is found in [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Baluchistan]] and [[Sind]]. In [[India]], it occurs naturally in [[Maharashtra]], [[Gujarat]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] and [[Haryana]].
|-
|Sahakaras ||''[[Mangifera indica]]''||[[English language|English]]:Mango, Indian: Aamba, Aamra, Aam, Amb|| [[Mahabharata]]||[[Anusasana Parva]]||XIII.54.4||King [[Kusika]] country|| [[Image:Mangifera indica. Tropical Brazil.JPG|thumb|200px|A middle sized evergreen tree]] ||A common tree all over India cultivated for its delicious fruits
|-
|Sanuha सनुह || NA || NA||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Vana Parva]]|| III.174.23||[[Dvaita Forest]], [[Kurukshetra]], [[Sarasvati River]]|| ||
|-
|Shami शमी || ''[[Prosopis cineraria]]''||Ghaf (United Arab Emirates), Khejri, Jant/Janti, Sangri (Rajasthan), jand (Punjabi), kandi (Sind), Banni (Kannada), Vanni (Tamil), sami, sumri (Gujarat).|| [[Mahabharata]]||[[Sabha Parva]]||II.47.4||{{dn|Kamboja}} country ||[[File:Khejri.jpg|thumb|200px|A small to medium size tree]] ||Occurs in the dry and arid regions of [[India]]. It is one of the chief indigenous trees of the plains of the Punjab, Western [[Rajasthan]], [[Gujarat]], [[Bundelkhand]], [[Delhi]], [[Agra]], dry parts of Central and Southern India, [[Maharashtra]] (near [[Nasik]]), [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Karnataka]] (south of [[Godavari]]). Occurs in [[Pakistan]], [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iran]].
|-
|Shami शमी||''[[Prosopis cineraria]]''||Khejadi|| [[Mahabharata]]||[[Virata Parva]]||IV.5.12 ||River Yamuna in [[Viratanagara]] || -||
|-
|Shami शमी ||''[[Prosopis cineraria]]''||Khejadi|| [[Mahabharata]]||[[Drona Parva]]||VII.153.24||[[Kurukshetra war]]||- ||
|-
|Shami शमी||''[[Prosopis cineraria]]||NA||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Karna Parva]] ||VIII.30.24||{{dn|Kuru}}-[[jangal]] country||- ||
|-
|Shami शमी||''[[Prosopis cineraria]]''||NA ||[[Mahabharata]]|| [[Shalya Parva]]||IX:46.12 ||[[Sarasvati River]]||- ||
|-
|Shami शमी ||''[[Prosopis cineraria]]''||NA||[[Mahabharata]]|| [[Shalya Parva]]||IX:46.16||Sarasvati River||-||
|-
|Shami शमी||''[[Prosopis cineraria]]||NA ||[[Mahabharata]]|| [[Shalya Parva]]||IX:46.18||[[Sarasvati River]]||- ||
|-
|Shirisha शिरीष ||''[[Albizzia lebbeck]]||[[English language|English]]:Lebbeck, Lebbek Tree, Flea Tree, Frywood, Koko and Woman's tongues Tree. Indian:Siras, Shirisha, Kala-siris, Chichola, Chichwa||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Vana Parva]]||III.174.23||[[Dvaita Forest]], [[Kurukshetra]], [[Sarasvati River]]|| [[File:Starr_080531-4752_Albizia_lebbeck.jpg|thumb|200px|A large, erect, unarmed deciduous, spreading tree]]|| A road-side tree common throughout [[India]], native to tropical southern [[Asia]], and widely cultivated and naturalised in other tropical and subtropical regions.
|-
|Shyama शयाम||''[[Salvadora persica]]''||[[Sanskrit]]: [[Pilu]], angāhavā, sītasahā, śyāma, Indian:Khaankann, mirajollee, khakhin, miraj, jhak, pilva, kharjal, rhakhan,thorapilu, [[English language|English]]:Arak, toothbrush tree ||[[Mahabharata]]|| [[Anusasana Parva]]||XIII.54.6||King Kusika country||[[File:Salvadora persica.jpg|thumb|200px|A small tree or shrub with a crooked trunk, seldom more than one foot in diameter]] ||[[Konkan]], [[Maharashtra]], drier parts of India including [[Punjab region|Punjab]] and [[Rajasthan]]
|-
|Tilaka तिलक|| ''[[Vitex altissima]]''||English :Tall chaste tree, [[Hindi]] : Tilakapushpa ||[[Mahabharata]]|| [[Anusasana Parva]]||XIII.54.5 ||King Kusika country||A large tree grows up to 40 meters in height||Throughout south [[India]], in evergreen and deciduous forests.
|-
|Uddalakas उद्दालक||''[[Cordia myxa]]''||Indian:Lasora, Bhokara, Shelvant, [[English language|English]]: Assyrian plum, Sebeston plum, Large sebestan||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Anusasana Parva]]||XIII.54.4||King Kusika country|| A medium-sized broad-leaved deciduous tree||In the Indian subcontinent, it is seen coming up naturally and growing abundantly from Myanmar in the East to Afghanistan in the West
|-
|Vamsa ||''[[Dendrocalamus]] species''||Bamboo|| [[Mahabharata]]||[[Virata Parva]]||IV.57.? ||[[Kurukshetra war]]
|-
|Vamsa ||''[[Dendrocalamus]] species''||Bamboo ||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Virata Parva]]||VII.34.? ||[[Kurukshetra war]]|| ||
|-
|Vanjula वञ्जुल|| ''[[Saraca asoca]]''||Ashoka ||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Anusasana Parva]]|| XIII.54.5||King Kusika country||[[File:Sita-Ashok (Saraca asoca) flowers in Kolkata W IMG 4146.jpg|thumb|200px|A middle sized evergreen tree]] ||Cultivated ingargens throughout [[India]]
|-
|Varanapushpa वारणपुष्प ||''[[Calophyllum inophyllum]]||[[Sanskrit]]:Punnāga (पुन्नाग), Indian:Undi, Undala, Unang, Surangi, Surpunka, Sultan champa, [[English language|English]]: Alexandrian Laurel, [[Tamil language|Tamil]]:Pinnai||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Anusasana Parva]]||XIII.54.6 ||King Kusika country || [[File:Starr 010309-0546 Calophyllum inophyllum.jpg|thumb|200px|A middle sized evergreen sub-marine tree]] ||It is native from [[East Africa]], southern coastal [[India]] to [[Malesia]] and [[Australia]]. Coastal regions and littoral forest of [[India]] and grown as an ornamental tree.
|-
|vaṭa (वट)||''[[Ficus bengalensis]]''|||'''Plaksha''', Bengal fig, Indian fig, East Indian fig, Indian Banyan or simply Banyan, also borh, nyagrodha and wad or Vad/Vat|| [[Mahabharata]]||[[Vana Parva]]||III.1.39, III.13.74||[[Pramanakoti]] on the banks of Ganga, to the north of [[Hastinapura]]|| [[File:FicusBengShoot.jpg|thumb|200px|A very large tree with many aerial roots]] ||Endemic to [[Bangladesh]], [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. Found in Sub-Himalayas tract abd western peninsula, planted elsewhere.
|-
|Venu वेणू|| ''[[Bambusa arundinacea]]''||[[English language|English]]:Spiny bamboo, [[Hindi]]:Kaantaa baans (काँटा बांस) ||[[Mahabharata]]|| [[Anusasana Parva]]||XIII.109.47 || || A graceful spinous perennial erect herb ||Wild throughout [[India]] especially in hill forests.
|-
|Venu (Kichaka) कीचक वेणू ||''[[Bambusa arundinacea]]''||[[English language|English]]:Spiny bamboo, [[Hindi]]:Kaantaa baans (काँटा बांस) || [[Mahabharata]]||[[Sabha Parva]]||II.48.2 ||Where River Sailoda flows between the mountains of Meru and Mandara||[[File:Giant Bamboo.jpg|thumb|200px|A graceful spinous perennial erect herb]] ||Wild throughout [[India]] especially in hill forests.
|-
|Vetas वेतस|| ''[[Calamus rotang]]'' ||Rattan Palm||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Vana Parva]]|| III.174.23||[[Dvaita Forest]], [[Kurukshetra]], [[Sarasvati River]] ||[[File:Calamus rotang Ypey33.jpg|thumb|200px|The basal section of the plant grows vertically for 10 metres or so, after which the slender, tough stem of a few centimetres in diameter, grows horizontally for 200 metres or more.]] ||Found in Southwest Asia.
|-
|Vibhitaka विभीतक||''[[Terminalia bellirica]]''||[[English language|English]]:[...], Myrobalan, Belliric myrobalan, [[Hindi]]: Baheraa (बहेड़ा), Behaddaa, Bibheeta,||[[Mahabharata]]||[[Shalya Parva]]||IX.36.58 ||Sarasvati River ||[[File:Terminalia bellirica.jpg|thumb|200px|A large deciduous tree]]||Common on plains and lower hills throughout the forests of [[India]]. Common in Southeast Asia, where it is also grown as an avenue tree.
|}

== See also ==
*[[List of Indian timber trees]]
*[[Flora of Madhya Pradesh]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
*[http://ayurvedicmedicinalplants.com/plants/index.php Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants Index]
**[http://ayurvedicmedicinalplants.com/plants/2.html Plants arranged by Botanical Name]
**[http://ayurvedicmedicinalplants.com/plants/3.html Plants arranged by Sanskrit Name]
*[http://mpcpdb.frlht.org.in/Nomenco_SK2Bot.html Sanskrit to Botanical Names]

[[Category:Flora of India]]
[[Category:Lists of trees]]
[[Category:Forest ecology]]
[[Category:Wood]]
[[Category:India-related lists]]
[[Category:Trees in Buddhist texts]]
[[Category:Trees in Hindu texts]]

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http://mpcpdb.frlht.org.in/Nomenco_SK2Bot.html

http://vishnu-purana.puranas.org/

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