College Sport Spectators
This article investigates the characteristics, motivations, and points of attachment of people who attend NCAA sporting events.
Fans vs. Spectators
In their research Galen Trail, professor at Iowa State University, and his colleagues cite L.R. Sloan’s distinction between fans and spectators: fans are “enthusiastic devotees” to a sport, while spectators merely observe. Iowa State University Professor Galen Trail and doctoral student Hyungil Kwon refer to Sutton’s breakdown of fan classification into three levels: social fans, focused fans, and vested fans. Social fans are those who have a low level of identification with a specific team or player but enjoy the entertainment and social values of attending sporting events. Focused fans are more highly identified with specific organizations than social fans and are typically attracted by the performance aspect of sports. These fans are more likely to change team preferences based on a team’s win/loss record. Vested fans devote much of their time, money, and a long-term emotional attachment to their team of choice. These highly-identified fans are 66% more likely to attend sporting events and will generally attend twice as many games as lowly identified fans. These fans are more likely to remain loyal fans of “their” team despite losses.
Motives for Attendance
Trail purports that sports fans and spectators fulfill social and psychological needs through sport attendance. These needs include: “vicarious achievement, acquisition of knowledge, aesthetics, social interaction, drama/eustress [positive stress resulting from excitement], escape, family [time], physical attractiveness of participants, and physical skill of participants.” Other motivations for fan attendance include self-esteem benefits, entertainment, and group affiliation (according to Wann’s 1995 study as cited by Kwon and Trail).
The table below distinguishes between fan’s and spectator’s specific motivations for attending sporting events. The center column shows motivations that fans and spectators share.
FANS |
FANS AND SPECTATORS |
SPECTATORS |
|---|---|---|
Motivations for Attending Sporting Events |
||
• Enjoy feeling a vicarious sense of achievement by cheering on a winning team • Fulfill “need for social prestige, self-esteem, and sense of empowerment” |
• Escape from both over-stimulation and under-stimulation • Camaraderie: both fans and spectators enjoy socializing with others through attending sporting events |
• Enjoy the aesthetic and dramatic (eustress) appeals of sporting events • Attend to observe the skill level of the athletes and to watch dramatic events and to gain new knowledge |
Outcome Preference |
||
• Fans “want a win at all costs, regardless of whether it is a thing of beauty or not” |
• Want game to be aesthetically pleasing, no outcome preference |
|
Points of Attachment |
||
• Attach to specific teams, coaches, universities, communities, or coaches because they enjoy “associat[ing] with successful others” • Division I-A fans are more likely to identify with specific teams, coaches, universities, or players than attendees of Division I-AA, II, or III games. |
• Enjoy the sport itself, don’t attach to a particular team, community, or university • Attach to type of sport, level of competition, and skill of players |
|
Level of Attachment |
||
• Internalization: highly-identified fans are intrinsically tied to a specific sport or team and will not waver with wins or losses or public norms |
• Compliance: some spectators attend sports games in order to publicly comply with social norms or support a community team |
Effect on Psychological Well-Being
Daniel L. Wann, Murray State University Professor of Psychology, and Michael P. Schrader cite Tajfel’s finding that “for highidentification [sic] fans, the role of team follower is a central component of their social identities; hence the team’s performances are relevant to their feelings of self-worth.”
Sports fandom positively influences a person’s private social identity, because knowledge of a team justifies their self-image, as well as their public social identity (fans flaunt their knowledge of sports to present a positive image to others). Wann and Schrader found that highly identified fans tend to have high levels of self esteem and generally feel no need to protect it, but use sport fandom as a way to enhance their ego.
Wann his colleagues tested the effect of being a sports fan on one’s psychological well-being. Testing students attending a Division I college, the study found that those who were “highly identified sport fans” of their school’s men’s basketball team had better psychological well-being in the areas of self-esteem, tension levels, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion than those who were minimally identified with their local sports team. The study also found that fans of non-local teams did not share in the same psychological benefits, likely because people who identify with a distant team do not enjoy the social benefits of associating with others of similar interest. This indicates that sports fandom generally requires socialization in order to be completely fulfilling. Wann and colleagues pointed out, however, that circumstances may exist where identification with a distant team may still boost one’s psychological well-being if that person has a way of interacting with other fans of the same team.
Effects on Biological Processes
As cited in “Science A Go Go 1,” an online science news and discussion center, Paul Bernhardt of the University of Utah's Educational Psychology Department found that male fans experience increases in testosterone levels when they watch their favorite team win, just as the athletes participating in the sport do.
A Fan's Perception of Game Outcome
Through a study of college basketball fans, Wann and Schrader found high-identification fans are more likely than low-identification fans to attribute their team’s wins to controllable, stable, or internal factors, such as a good effort or talented players. They are also more likely to attribute losses to factors outside of the team’s control, such as being tired from traveling. Wann and Schrader cite Wann’s earlier study, which found that fans who relate their self-image to their team are more likely to cheer on their team and believe that it has an effect on the game’s outcome than other spectators.
In a 2002 study, Wann et al found that highly identified fans are more knowledgeable about their sport than lowly identified fans, especially in areas that are irrelevant to the outcome of specific games, such as player names and other particulars. However, when asked questions about game outcomes, highly identified fans have a tendency to overestimate the number of wins for their teams in an effort to present their positive social image as fans of their team.
Emotional Response to Team Performance
Wann, Brewer, and Royalty, as cited in a later study by Wann, noted that a fan’s emotional response to a sporting event is relate to his or her motivation for attending that event. The eight main motivations for attending a sporting event (eustress, self-esteem, escape, entertainment, economic, aesthetic, group affiliation, and family needs) all have an impact on the variances in different individuals’ post-game emotional states, but the motivations of entertainment and family are the only significant contributors which single-handedly affect the post-game emotions of fans attending the game. They noted that this could easily be seen in their study, for a close game would meet the need of entertainment, while a crowded stadium would make family time less enjoyable and less productive.
As cited in a later study by Wann and Schrader, Wann and some of his colleagues found that fans who associate their social identities closely with sports teams are likely to have stronger emotional reactions to a game’s proceedings and will become more anxious during the game.
Changes in Team Preference
Through examining the trends of spectators of two college sports teams-- a historically successful basketball team and a historically unsuccessful football team-- Wann found that spectators’ identification and involvement with and evaluation of a team changes during the course of a single season. For the basketball team in the study, which had a record of doing well, spectators’ identification with their team varied in correlation with the previous game’s outcome. When the team won, spectators increased their level of identification with the team; when the team lost, the identification with and evaluation of the team decreased.
Spectators of the historically unsuccessful football team grew more confident in their team’s ability for future wins when they were unexpectedly victorious in more than one game in a row and increased their identification with the team. Spectator identification also varied moderately with the location of the previous game.
[...] and Gender Differences in Spectators
Research indicates that males are more likely than females to be sports fans and even more strongly indicates that masculine individuals, whether male or female, are more likely than feminine individuals to be sports fans. However, contemporary research findings show that women are becoming increasingly involved in sport fandom.
Sports Fandom as a Popularity Determinant
Psychology Professors Christian M. End (University of Missouri-Rolla), Jeff M. Krefschamr (Wesley College), and Beth Dietz-Uhler (Miami University) performed a study in which they found that male respondents identified “being a sports fan” the third of seven qualities important to determining popularity, while for girls the criterion ranked seventh of the seven qualities.
Differences in Motives
Wann and his colleauges stated that “males are more likely than females to be motivated by eustress, self-esteem needs, and the aesthetic qualities of sport,” while females place more value in family motivations.
Matthew Robinson (University of Delaware) and Galen Trail (University of Florida) found that both men and women attend sporting events to find escape, drama, and social interaction. Wann and his colleauges found that while men use sports to escape from both over- and under-stimulation, women generally use spectating to escape from over-stimulation. However, women are more likely to report higher levels of stress in general.
Trait Aggression
Wann and his colleagues found correlation between trait aggression and sport fandom in male college students but not in female college students.
College Students: A Unique Group
College students are especially likely to be fans of college sports, though they vary in their level of dedication. Kwon and Trail suggest that one reason for college students’ high rates of identification with sports teams is that sports teams are “the most visible representation of the university,” and all students likely identify with the university itself to some degree. A survey by the Taylor research and consulting group reported that 78% of the college students who were surveyed claimed to be men’s basketball fans, and 48% called themselves women’s basketball fans, whereas the figures for these qualifications in the general public were 47% and 31% respectively. Kwon and Trail cite Fulks’ 1998 figures that student ticket sales generate an average of $245,000 for Division I-A athletic departments.
Murrell and Dietz, as cited by Kwon and Trail, found that the college students attend an average of 1.9 intercollegiate football games and 1 basketball game each season. Kwon and Trail also cite Wann and Branscombe’s 1993 figure that highly identified fans attend about 12 basketball games per season, wheras lowly identified fans attend about 2. Wann and Branscombe also found that college students tend to be moderately more identified with men’s football than with men’s basketball.
Kwon and Trail cited Wann’s 1995 and 1999 studies which noted that, for college students, entertainment is the primary motive for sports attendance, with eustress (positive drama) as the secondary motive and group affiliation, self-esteem benefits, and aesthetics as other noteworthy motives. Escape from everyday life, time with family, and economics (gambling) are least significant as motivations for college student sport spectatorship.
One study (conducted by Wann and his colleagues) found that, of students who reported using sport fandom as an escape, almost two-thirds reported using it as an escape from over-stimulation, while over one-third reported using it to escape under-stimulation. In CONTRAST, a more varied study including non-students found that 48% of those who use sports spectating as an escape use it to escape from over-stimulation, while 52% reported escaping from under-stimulation.
International Student Fans
Kwon and Trail found that, on average, international students attend fewer football and basketball games than Americans. Internationals students are attracted by the same motives as American students, but international students place a slightly higher value on aesthetics. International students also tend to identify with their university’s basketball team more than their football team.
References
“Ball Games Raise Testosterone Levels.” Science A Go Go 19 May 1998, 11 Dec. 2007 <http://www.scienceagogo.com/news/19980419140959data_trunc_sys.shtml>.
End, Christian M., Jeff M. Kretschmar, and Beth Dietz-Uhler. “College Students’ Perceptions of Sports Fandom as a Social Status Determinant.” International Sports Journal. 8.1(2004): 114-121.
Kahle, Lynne R., Kenneth M. Kambara, and Gregory M. Rose. “A Functional Model of Fan Attendance Motivations for College Football.” Sport Marketing Quarterly.5.4 (1996): 51-60.
Kwon, Hyungil and Galen Trail. “Sport Fan Motivation: A Comparison of American Students and International Students.” Sport Marketing Quarterly. 10.2 (2001): 147-154.
Robinson, Matthew J. and Galen T. Trail. “Relationships Among Spectator Gender, Motives, Points of Attachment, and Sport Preference.” Journal of Sport Management. 19.1 (2005): 58-80.
Robinson, Matthew J., Galen T. Trail, Ronald J. [...], and Andrew J. Gillentine. “Fans vs. Spectators: An Analysis of Those Who Attend Intercollegiate Football Games.” Sport Marketing Quarterly. 14.1 (2005): 43-52.
Trail, Galen T., Matthew J. Robinson, Ronald J. [...], and Andrew J. Gillentine. “Motives and Points of Attachment: Fans Versus Spectators in Intercollegiate Athletics.” Sport Marketing Quarterly. 12. 4 (2003): 217-227.
Wann, Daniel L., Sharon Inman, Christi L. Ensor, Rhonda D. Gates and Deanna S. Caldwell. “Assessing the Psychological Well-Being of Sport Fans Using the Profile of Mood States: The Importance of Team Identification.” International Sports Journal. 3.4 (1999): 81-90.
Wann, Daniel L., and Michael P. Schrader. “Controllability and Stability in the Self-Serving Attributions of Sport Spectators.” Journal of Social Psychology. 140.2 (2000).
Wann, Daniel L, Pamela A. Morris-Shirkey, E. Jeanne Peters, and Willa L. Suggs. “Highly Identified Sport Fans and Their Conflict between Expression of Sport Knowledge and Biased Assessments of Team Performance.” International Sports Journal. 6.1 (2002): 153-159.
Wann, Daniel L., Sarah Shelton, Tony Smuith, and Rhonda Walker. “Relationship Between Team Identification and Trait Agression: A Replication.” Perceptual and Motor Skills. 94. (2002): 595-498.
Wann, D.L. " Seasonal Changes in Spectators’ Identification and Involvement with and Evaluations of College Basketball and Football teams.” Psychological Record. 46.1 (1996): 201-215.
Wann, Daniel L., Joel L. Royalty, and Al R. Rochelle. “Using Motivation and Team Identification to Predict Sport Fans’ Emotional Responses to Team Performance.” Journal of Sport Behavior. 25.2 (2002): 207-215.
Wann, Daniel L. and P.J. Waddill “Using [...] and Gender Role Orientation to Predict Level of Sport Fandom.” Journal of Sport Behavior. 27.4 (2004).
Wann, Daniel L., Beverly Allen, and Al R. Rochelle. “Using Sport Fandom as an Escape: Searching for Relief from Under-Stimulation and Over-Stimulation.” International Sports Journal. (Winter 2004): 104-112.